Che Major Trading System Utilizzato Swahili

risultati prima età del ferro in Africa orientale e meridionale Prima della Bantu, la parte meridionale dell'Africa si crede di essere stato popolato da Khoisan persone che parlano, oggi occupando le regioni aride in tutto il Kalahari e poche sacche isolate in Tanzania, mentre Etiopi. Nilotes e le altre persone che parlano le lingue afro-asiatiche abitati nord-orientale e dell'Africa settentrionale. Northwestern Africa, il Sahara. e Sudan erano abitate da persone che parlano Mande e lingue Atlantic (come il Fulani e wolof) e le altre persone che parlano lingue Nilo-sahariana. E 'generalmente accettato che i popoli di lingua bantu originati da Africa occidentale circa 4.000 anni fa. In diverse grandi ondate di migrazione e dispersione si trasferirono ad est (in un primo momento a nord della foresta pluviale tropicale per la regione settentrionale dell'Africa orientale) e poi verso sud, arrivando ad occupare altopiani centrali dell'Africa nella terza ondata. Da lì una migrazione verso sud finale ha avuto luogo nelle regioni meridionali dell'Africa, che è misurabile da circa 2.000 anni fa. Il movimento finale nelle regioni meridionali ha provocato lo spostamento dei popoli aborigeni Khoikoi e Khoisan, con conseguente qualche mescolanza etnica e linguistica. Mentre i gruppi del sud di popoli di lingua bantu migrati verso sud due gruppi principali emersi, il Nguni (Xhosa, Zulu. Ndebele, Swazi), che occupavano le pianure costiere orientali, e il Sotho-Tswana che ha vissuto sul plateau interno. I due gruppi linguistici sono facili da distinguere, come gli scatti lingue nguni adottati, mentre la maggior parte Lingue Sotho-Tswana no. A volte nel secondo millennio, B. C.E. . forse innescata dalla essiccazione del Sahara e la pressione dalla migrazione di persone provenienti dal Sahara nella regione, sono stati costretti a espandersi in foreste pluviali dell'Africa centrale (fase I). Nel primo millennio B. C.E. . hanno iniziato una seconda fase più rapida espansione al di là delle foreste in Africa meridionale e orientale, e di nuovo nel primo millennio C. E. come nuove tecniche agricole e le piante sono state sviluppate in Zambia. Hanno utilizzato tecnologie relativamente avanzate per l'età del ferro rispetto alle persone che sfollati hanno anche portato a profondi cambiamenti in alcune regioni sono entrati, come ad esempio l'area attualmente conosciuto come il Waterberg in circa 450 C. E. nell'estremo nord del Sud Africa. Ad esempio, hanno portato il bestiame - aumentare a settori quali il Waterberg massiccio e erbivori naturali sfollati come rinoceronte bianco e blu gnu. Con circa 1000 C. E. la migrazione aveva raggiunto moderna Zimbabwe e Sud Africa. In Zimbabwe è stato istituito un importante impero nell'emisfero sud, con capitale a Great Zimbabwe. E 'controllato rotte commerciali dal Sud Africa al nord dello Zambesi. l'oro di trading, rame, pietre preziose, pelli di animali, avorio e in metallo con i commercianti arabi della costa Swahili. In questo periodo vi è evidenza di cabotaggio con gli arabi. con la regione sud-est asiatico, e anche con la Cina. Con i secoli XIV-XV l'Impero era crollata, con la città di Great Zimbabwe essere abbandonato. Una ipotesi comune del espansione bantù Settlement post-europeo Quando i primi marinai portoghesi (come Vasco Da Gama e Bartolomeo Dias) arrotondato il Capo di Buona Speranza nel 1400 pochissimi parlanti bantu sono stati trovati lì. La popolazione indigena predominante intorno al Capo era costituita da popoli Khoisan. A seguito di insediamento Jan van Riebeeck s al Capo nel 1652 coloni europei per lo più olandesi. Ugonotti francesi e tedeschi. conosciuta in passato come boeri (oggi indicato come afrikaner) ha cominciato ad occupare Sud Africa in numero sempre crescente. Intorno al 1770 boeri la migrazione a nord terreno incontrato occupato in permanenza da Bantu popoli di lingua (in particolare intorno al fiume di pesce) e attriti sorto tra i due gruppi. Questo ha iniziato un modello in cui le nuove (bianco) coloni hanno usato la forza superiore per sottomettere Andor spostare i popoli bantu di lingua che hanno incontrato, proprio come era stato fatto con i popoli aborigeni Khoisan i boeri aveva precedentemente incontrato al Capo. Dalla fine del 1700 e l'inizio del 1800 ci sono stati due grandi aree di contatto di attrito tra i coloni bianchi e le popolazioni di lingua bantu dell'Africa meridionale. In primo luogo, come i boeri spostato a nord dalla costa del Capo hanno incontrato il Xhosa, la Basotho, e il Tswana. In secondo luogo i tentativi di grandi insediamenti costieri sono state fatte dagli inglesi nel territorio Xhosa (ora Eastern Cape), in Zululand (ora KwaZulu-Natal). Al momento KwaZulu-Natal era popolata da decine di piccoli clan - speaking Zulu. Nel 1816 Shaka ascese al trono Zulu (in quella fase la Zulu fosse semplicemente uno dei tanti clan). All'interno di un periodo relativamente breve di tempo aveva conquistato i suoi clan vicini e aveva forgiato la Zulu nel più importante alleato del grande clan di Mthethwa, che era in concorrenza con il clan Ndwandwe per il dominio della parte settentrionale della moderna KwaZulu-Natal. In molti conti Shaka usato la forza militare spietata contro i suoi avversari, spesso adottando una politica di terra bruciata di distruggere o spostare le popolazioni civili. Shaka, che aveva avuto contatti con gli esploratori inglesi si rese conto che gli europei rappresentato una minaccia per le popolazioni locali, e aveva programmato di iniziare un intenso programma di formazione per consentire ai NGONI al passo con gli europei. Tuttavia nel 1828 fu assassinato dal suo fratellastro Dingane, che gli successe. Un leader debole, Dingane è stato sconfitto dai boeri, ma sotto i suoi successori Mpande (un altro fratellastro) e Mpandes figlio Cetshwayo Zulu erano in grado di respingere Boer tenta di conquistarli. Cetshwayo consegnato l'esercito britannico la peggiore sconfitta mai sofferto per mano di una forza di combattimento non europeo nella battaglia di Isandlwana, prima di soccombere alla tecnologia militare europea moderna. Gli europei nell'era della tratta degli schiavi a volte giustificato la riduzione in schiavitù degli africani, sottolineando che la schiavitù esisteva già in quel continente. Tuttavia, mentre le forme di schiavitù erano antiche in Africa, ed i mestieri trans-sahariani e del Mar Rosso musulmani sono stati a lungo in piedi, il commercio Atlantico interagito con e trasformato questi aspetti precedenti di schiavitù. Potenti leader africani dovrebbero controllare il settore degli schiavi e trattare con gli europei, al fine di favorire la loro ricchezza e status con gli stranieri. Un gran numero di persone sono state bantu schiavo e portato nelle Americhe. Gli schiavi sono stati impiegati per essere servi, concubine. soldati, amministratori e agricoltori. Interi villaggi sono stati catturati e fatti per rendere omaggio al capo dello Stato, o sono stati spediti via alla costa orientale degli Stati Uniti. Queste persone sono state considerate proprietà dai loro proprietari, e spesso sono stati separati dalla loro famiglia per sempre. Con la crescente insediamento di popoli bianchi in Africa del sud è venuto forze sociali, economiche e politiche che hanno avuto effetti profondi sugli altoparlanti bantu. Considerando che la politica britannica era divide et impera, la politica Boer potrebbe essere caratterizzata come dominio a titolo definitivo. Nei secoli XIX e XX c'erano diverse rivolte contro i coloni, uno dei più notevole è la ribellione Bhambatha a Natal. La creazione di confini politici in Africa del Sud, come era accaduto altrove in Africa, era arbitraria alla popolazione locale. Ad esempio, i popoli Tswana lingua in diretta su entrambi i lati del mezzo confine Repubblica del Sud Africa, Botswana, del territorio occupato dalla Swazi è stato dato al boeri (ed è ora parte del Sud Africa) al momento dello Swaziland è stato dichiarato un protettorato britannico una divisione del territorio occupato dalla basotho sono stati vincolato al Protettorato di Basutoland (ora Lesotho) al più piccolo terreno agricolo praticabile la Swati è stato negato l'accesso alle terre tradizionali a Maputo dalla colonia portoghese in quello che oggi è il Mozambico. Somalo donna somala Bantu Bantu lavoro nei campi Il somalo Bantu (chiamato anche Jarir, Jareer, Wagosha o Mushunguli) sono una minoranza etnica in Somalia. in primo luogo che risiede nella città di Jowhar. Essi sono i discendenti di persone provenienti da diversi gruppi etnici bantu in quella che è oggi la Tanzania. Malawi. e Mozambico, che sono stati portati in Somalia come schiavi nel XIX secolo. Il somalo Bantu si definiscono semplicemente Bantu. Come il somalo, la maggior parte di loro parla la lingua somala, solo una minoranza ha conservato la propria identità e la lingua. La maggior parte sono musulmani. ma molti hanno anche mantenuto le tradizioni animiste. Contrariamente ai somali, che sono principalmente pastori nomadi, i bantu sono agricoltori principalmente sedentari. Possono avere la pelle più scura rispetto ai somali più leggeri dalla pelle, e tratti del viso più rotondo. Bantu secolo XX Nel 1920, relativamente liberale sudafricani bianchi. missionari e la piccola intellighenzia nero ha cominciato a usare il termine Bantu di preferenza a termini nativi e più sprezzanti (come Kaffir) per riferirsi collettivamente lingua bantu sudafricani. Dopo la seconda guerra mondiale. i governi razziste del partito nazionale adottata ufficialmente che l'uso, mentre il crescente movimento nazionalista africano e dei suoi alleati liberali bianchi rivolti al termine africano, invece, in modo che Bantu venne identificato con le politiche di apartheid. Dal 1970 questo modo screditata Bantu come una designazione etnico-razziale che il governo dell'apartheid passa al termine nera nelle sue categorizzazioni ufficiali razziali, che limitano a lingua bantu africani, più o meno nello stesso momento in cui la Coscienza movimento nera guidata da Steve Biko e altri sono stati definendo nero intendono tutti i razziale oppressi sudafricani (africani, meticci e indiani). Esempi di usi sudafricani di Bantu includono: Una delle Afriche del Sud politici, generali Bantubonke Harrington Holomisa (Bantubonke è un nome composto che significa tutte le persone), è conosciuto come Bantu Holomisa. I governi dell'apartheid del Sud Africa in origine dato i Bantustan nome alle aree di riserva rurali undici destinati ad un spurio, l'indipendenza surrogato di negare la cittadinanza africani del Sud Africa. Bantustan originariamente riflette una analogia alle varie - stans etnici dell'Europa occidentale e dell'Asia centrale. Ancora una volta l'associazione con l'apartheid screditato il termine, e il governo sudafricano ha spostato alle patrie etniche politicamente attraenti ma storicamente ingannevoli termine. Nel frattempo, il movimento anti-apartheid si ostinava a chiamare i Bantustan aree, per guidare a casa la loro illegittimità politica. Il sostantivo astratto ubuntu, che significa umanità o humaneness, deriva regolarmente dal nguni sostantivo - ntu stelo in isiXhosa, isiZulu e Sindebele. In siSwati il ​​gambo è - ntfu e il sostantivo è buntfu. Nei Lingue Sotho-Tswana dell'Africa meridionale, batho è il termine affine a Nguni abantu, illustrando che tali affini non devono in realtà assomigliano alla radice - ntu esattamente. I primi africano Congresso Nazionale del Sud Africa ha avuto un giornale chiamato Abantu-Batho 1912-1933, che ha effettuato le colonne in inglese, isiZulu, Sesotho, e isiXhosa. Il Bantu non erano territorialmente la pensano come gli europei, ma piuttosto relativi ai gruppi. Finché terra sufficiente era disponibile, avevano solo concezioni molto vaghe delle frontiere. Bordi erano caratteristiche naturali come fiumi o monti, che non erano con qualsiasi mezzo fissi. Fino a poco tempo fa, i popoli di lingua bantu erano spesso divisi in diversi clan, non intorno federazioni nazionali, ma gruppi indipendenti da alcune centinaia di migliaia di individui. La più piccola unità della struttura organizzativa politica è stata la famiglia, o Kraal, costituito da un uomo, donna o le donne, ei loro figli, così come altri parenti che vivono nella stessa economia domestica. L'uomo era il capo della famiglia e spesso ha avuto molte mogli ed è stato il rappresentante primaria familys. La famiglia e stretti rapporti generalmente svolto un ruolo importante. Le famiglie che hanno vissuto nella stessa valle o sulla stessa collina in un villaggio sono stati anche un'unità organizzativa, gestito da un sub-capo. Chiefdomship era in gran parte ereditaria, anche se i capi sono stati spesso sostituiti quando non è efficace. Con la maggior parte dei clan il figlio maggiore ha ereditato la carica di suo padre. Con alcuni clan l'ufficio è stato lasciato al fratello maggiore del capo defunto, e dopo la sua morte, ancora una volta il fratello Disc. Questo ripetuto fino a quando l'ultimo fratello è morto. Avanti era il figlio maggiore del capo originale, allora il più vecchio dei fratelli, come il leader. Il capo è stato circondato con un numero di amici o consulenti di fiducia, di solito parenti come zii e fratelli, piuttosto che influenti capi tribù o personali amici. Il grado di democrazia dipendeva dalla forza del capo. Il più potente e più influente un capo era, il minore l'influenza del suo popolo. Anche se il leader ha avuto tanto potere, non era al di sopra della legge. Poteva essere criticato sia dai consulenti, nonché dalla sua gente, e la compensazione potrebbe essere richiesto. Le lingue bantu (tecnicamente strette lingue bantu) costituiscono un gruppo appartenente alla famiglia Niger-Congo. Questo raggruppamento è nel profondo l'albero genealogico del raggruppamento Bantoid, che a sua volta è in fondo nella struttura del Niger-Congo. Secondo una stima, ci sono 513 lingue nel raggruppamento Bantu, 681 lingue in Bantoid, e 1.514 nel Niger-Congo. 4 lingue bantu si parlano fondamentalmente est e sud dei nostri giorni nazione della Nigeria. nelle regioni comunemente noto come l'Africa centrale, Africa orientale e meridionale. Alcune parti di questa sezione Bantu dell'Africa hanno anche lingue al di fuori della famiglia Niger-Congo. La parola Bantu è stata la prima volta da Wilhelm Bleek (1827-1875) con le persone significato, come questo si riflette in molte delle lingue di questo gruppo. Una caratteristica comune delle lingue bantu è che usano una forma tronco come - ntu o - tu a persona, e il prefisso plurale per le persone in molte lingue è BA. insieme dando ba-NTU persone. Bleek, e più tardi Carl Meinhof, perseguiti ampi studi comparativi delle grammatiche della lingua bantu. Con il XVI secolo, i popoli di lingua bantu occupato gran parte delle regioni orientali dell'Africa meridionale, praticando l'agricoltura e la pastorizia. Hanno creato armi di ferro e rame e ornamenti, praticavano il libero scambio con i loro vicini. lingue correlate sono state pronunciate, come ad esempio Tswana, Sotho, così come le lingue nguni quali Zulu e Xhosa. acquisizione alimentari bantu agricoltori vicino Kismaayo L'acquisizione cibo dei Bantu è stato principalmente limitati a agricoltura e la caccia, dove in genere le donne erano responsabili per l'agricoltura e gli uomini trassero per la caccia. Tranne che con la Tsonga (e in parte il Mpondo), la pesca era sorprendentemente poca importanza. La dieta consisteva di mais (introdotto dal Sud-Est asiatico), carne (soprattutto di selvaggina e carne di manzo), verdure e latte, acqua e birra di grano (che conteneva molto poco alcol rispetto a birra europea). Il Bantu avuto una serie di tabù per quanto riguarda il consumo di carne. Niente carne di cani. scimmie. coccodrilli. o serpenti potrebbero essere mangiati. Allo stesso modo tabù era la carne di alcuni uccelli. gufi come. corvi. e avvoltoi. Tutti i gruppi bantu comunemente avevano chiara separazione tra i compiti delle donne e quelli degli uomini. Tra il Sotho, villaggi sono stati a volte composti da ben 200 persone, ma la Nguni erano costituiti da un paio di famiglie allargate. Uomini servito come artigiani, cacciatori, pastori e le donne hanno fatto agricolo e faccende domestiche, e, talvolta, hanno organizzato il loro modo comunitario del lavoro. tipi di casa Il Bantu vivevano in due diversi tipi di case. Il Nguni utilizzato la casa Beehive, una struttura circolare di lunghi pali, che era coperto con erba. Le capanne del Sotho, Venda e Shangana Tsonga usato la casa cono e cilindro. Una parete cilindrica è stata costituita da montanti verticali, che è stato sigillato con fango e sterco di mucca. Il tetto è stato costruito dai pali legati insieme. Il piano di entrambi i tipi è compresso terra. Magia prende un importante ruolo centrale nella Bantu convinzione, con una buona e cattiva influenza. Il Bantu credeva nella separazione dal corpo e lo spirito dopo la morte. Spesso visto una manifestazione delle anime dei antenati defunti in cerimonie. Il culto afro-brasiliana Quimbanda è una manifestazione del Nuovo Mondo di Bantu religione e la spiritualità. Contemporanea Bantu Attualmente i bantu sono noti più come un gruppo linguistico che come gruppo etnico distinto. Swahili è la lingua più parlata Bantu ed è considerato la lingua principale di circa 50 milioni di persone che vivono nei paesi lungo la costa orientale dell'Africa. Vivono soprattutto nelle regioni che si situano l'equatore e continuano verso sud in sud Africa dove si crede hanno migrato a. Le moderne popolazioni di lingua bantu dell'Africa sono per lo più musulmani. e condurre una varietà di differenti modi di vita, dagli agricoltori tradizionali alla gente di città contemporanea. Somali bantu bambini rifugiati in Florida, 2007 Si stima che il Bantu della Somalia sono circa 600.000 (su una popolazione totale di 7,5 milioni). Durante la guerra civile somala. molti Bantu sono stati sfrattati dalle loro terre da varie fazioni armate dei clan somali. Dal momento che avevano solo poche armi da fuoco, erano particolarmente inclini alla violenza e saccheggi da parte di persone armate e milizie. Decine di migliaia di somali sono fuggiti Bantu guerra e carestie in Somalia e sono andati a campi profughi nel vicino Kenya. come Kakuma e Dadaab. La maggior parte di loro hanno dichiarato di non voler tornare in Somalia. Circa 12.000 Bantu somali sono stati reinsediati negli Stati Uniti con l'aiuto dell'UNHCR. Nel 2000, gli Stati Uniti classificato il Bantu come una priorità e ha iniziato i preparativi per il reinsediamento per selezionare le città in tutto il paese, tra quelli è noto che Salt Lake City, Utah ha ricevuto circa 1.000 dei rifugiati. Altre città nel sud-ovest, come Denver, Colorado. e Tucson, Arizona, ricevuto poche migliaia pure. Nel New England, Manchester, New Hampshire e Burlington, Vermont hanno ricevuto flussi di Bantu numerazione a centinaia. I piani per reinsediare i Bantu nelle città più piccole sono stati abbandonati dopo la protesta locale. I modelli di reinsediamento sono in contrasto con somali regolari, che sono concentrati nella Minneapolis-St. Paul area, Columbus, Ohio, Washington, DC. Atlanta. San Diego. Boston. Seattle. e con pochi nel Maine. Bibliografia Bleek, Wilhelm. Una comparativa Grammar of South African lingue. Gregg Internazionale, 1968. ISBN 978-0576114585 Clark, J. Desmond. La preistoria dell'Africa. Thames and Hudson, 1970. Gordon, Aprile A. e Donald L. Gordon. Capire l'Africa contemporanea. Lynne Riener Publishers, 2006. ISBN 978-1588264664 Guthrie, Malcolm. Bantu comparativa. Farnborough: Gregg International Publishers Ltd. Vols. 14, 1968. ISBN 978-0576114684 Schapera, I. Il bantu Parlando tribù del Sud Africa. Londra: Routlege amp Kegan Paul, 1959. Shillington, Kevin. Storia dell'Africa. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005. ISBN 978-0333599570 Werner, Alice. Miti e leggende del Bantu. NuVision Publications, 2007. ISBN 978-1595478481 Link esterni Tutti i link recuperati 11 dicembre 2016. Nuovo Mondo enciclopedia scrittori ed editori ha riscritto e ha completato l'articolo di Wikipedia in accordo con New World Enciclopedia standard. In questo articolo si attiene termini della Creative Commons CC-BY-SA 3.0 License (CC-BY-SA), che possono essere utilizzati e diffusi con la corretta attribuzione. Il credito è dovuto secondo i termini di questa licenza che può fare riferimento sia il nuovo mondo Enciclopedia collaboratori ei collaboratori volontari altruisti della Wikimedia Foundation. Per citare questo articolo clicca qui per una lista di accettabile citando la storia formats. The di precedenti contributi di Wikipediani è accessibile ai ricercatori qui: Nota: alcune restrizioni possono essere applicate all'utilizzo di singole immagini che sono separatamente licensed. CAPITAL: Muscat (Masqat) FLAG : la bandiera è rossa con una vasta striscia di bianco al volo superiore e verde al volo inferiore. In alto a sinistra, spade incrociate bianche sovrapporre un pugnale cerimoniale. ANTHEM: Nashid as-Salaam as-Sutani (sultani Inno Nazionale). Unità monetaria: il Riyal dell'Oman (ro), istituita nel novembre 1972, è una moneta di carta di 1.000 baizas. Ci sono monete di 2, 5, 10, 25, 50, 100, 250, e 500 baizas, e le note di 100, 250, e 500 baizas (gli ultimi due di essere sostituito da monete) e 1, 5, 10, 20, e 50 riyal. RO1 2,56,41 mila (o 1 ro0.39) a partire dal 2005. I PESI E MISURE: Il sistema metrico è stato adottato il 15 novembre 1974. Il sistema imperiale e locale sono utilizzati anche. VACANZE: adesione del sultano, il 23 luglio festa nazionale, il 18 novembre sultani compleanno, il 19 novembre. Mobili festività religiose musulmane includono Id al-Fitr, Id al-Adha, e Milad an-Nabi. TEMPO: 04:00 mezzogiorno GMT. tempo solare è anche osservato. Il Sultanato dell'Oman è il secondo più grande paese dopo l'Arabia Saudita nella penisola arabica, con una zona ufficialmente stimato in 212,46 mila chilometri quadrati (82.031 miglia quadrate). Comparativamente, l'area occupata da Oman è leggermente più piccola dello stato del Kansas. territorio Omans comprende la punta di un importanza strategica di Ras Musandam, che si protende nello stretto di Hormuz. Omans parte della penisola è separata dal resto del paese da parte del territorio degli Emirati Arabi Uniti (EAU). Oman corretta estende 972 km (604 mi) ne x2013 SW e 513 km (319 mi) se x2013 nw. E 'delimitato a n dallo Stretto di Hormuz, sul ne dal Golfo di Oman, sulla posta e s dal Mar Arabico, il sw da parte della Repubblica Popolare Democratica dello Yemen (PDRY), sul w dal ar-Rub al-Khali (Empty Quarter) e l'Arabia Saudita, e sul nw dagli Emirati Arabi Uniti. La lunghezza totale di confine stimato è 3.466 km (2.154 mi), di cui 2.092 km (1.300 mi) è costa. Fisicamente, Oman, ad eccezione della regione del Dhofar (Zufar), si compone di tre divisioni: una pianura costiera, una catena montuosa, e un plateau. La pianura costiera varia in larghezza da 16 km (10 miglia) a praticamente nulla vicini a Muscat, dove le colline scendono bruscamente verso il mare. Il punto più alto, Jabal Shams, si trova a 2.980 metri (9.777 piedi) nel campo di Al Jabal del nord. L'altopiano ha un'altezza media di circa 300 m (1.000 piedi) ed è per lo più sassoso e senz'acqua, che si estende alle sabbie del Ar-Rub al-Khali. La costa sud di Dhofar è sterile e minaccioso. Da Salalah, una fertile pianura semicircolare si estende ai piedi di una linea di colline ripide, circa 1.500 m (4.920 piedi) di altezza, e forma il bordo di un altopiano roccioso che si estende anche alle sabbie del quarto vuoto. Le precipitazioni annue in media Muscat 10 cm (4 pollici), che cade per lo più nel mese di gennaio. Dhofar è soggetta al monsone sud-ovest, e piovosità fino a 64 cm (25 in) è stato registrato nella stagione delle piogge da fine giugno a ottobre. Mentre le zone di montagna ricevono più pioggia abbondante, alcune parti della costa, in particolare presso l'isola di Masirah, a volte non ricevere pioggia a tutti nel corso di un anno. Il clima è generalmente molto caldo, con temperature che raggiungono 54 xB0 C (129 xB0 f) nella stagione calda, da maggio a ottobre. Deserto arbusti e deserto di erba, comune a Arabia meridionale. si trovano. La vegetazione è rada nel plateau interno, che è in gran parte di ghiaia deserto. La maggior precipitazioni in Dhofar e le montagne rende la crescita non più rigogliosa. Palme da cocco crescono abbondantemente nel Dhofar e incenso cresce in collina. Oleander e varietà di acacia abbondano. mammiferi indigeni includono il ghepardo, la iena, la volpe, il lupo, e la lepre. Gli uccelli sono il arabo vedere-vedere pernice, RedLeg pernice chukor, e Muscat ape mangiatore. Nel 2002, ci sono stati almeno 56 specie di mammiferi, 109 specie di uccelli e oltre 1.200 specie di piante in tutto il paese. Il mantenimento di un adeguato approvvigionamento di acqua per uso agricolo e domestico è Omans più urgente problema ambientale. La nazione ha un solo chilometro cubo delle risorse idriche rinnovabili, con 94 dei ritiri annuali utilizzate nell'attività agricola e 2 per l'attività industriale. Sia la siccità e precipitazioni limitate contribuiscono a carenze nella fornitura nazioni acqua. Il terreno nazioni ha mostrato un aumento dei livelli di salinità. Inquinamento delle spiagge e di altre zone costiere di traffico di petroliere attraverso lo stretto di Hormuz e il Golfo di Oman è anche un problema persistente. Nel 2003, circa il 14 della superficie totale era protetto, secondo un rapporto del 2006 emessa dall'Unione Internazionale per la Conservazione della Natura e delle Risorse Naturali (IUCN), specie minacciate inclusi 12 tipi di mammiferi, 14 specie di uccelli, 4 tipi di rettili, 18 specie di pesci, 1 specie di invertebrati, e 6 specie di piante. Decreti sono stati passati per proteggere le specie in via di estinzione, tra cui il leopardo Sud arabo, la gazzella di montagna, la gazzella Goitered, Tahr arabo, tartaruga verde, tartaruga embricata e la tartaruga d'oliva. La Oryx Santuario arabo è un patrimonio mondiale dell'UNESCO. La popolazione di Oman, nel 2005 è stato stimato dalle Nazioni Unite (ONU) a 2.436.000, che lo mise al numero 137 nella popolazione tra le 193 nazioni del mondo. Nel 2005, circa 3 della popolazione è stato più di 65 anni di età, con un altro 33 della popolazione sotto i 15 anni di età. Ci sono stati 128 maschi per ogni 100 femmine nel paese. Secondo le Nazioni Unite, il tasso di popolazione di variazione annuale per 2005 x2013 10 si aspettava di essere 1,8, un tasso che il governo considerato soddisfacente. La popolazione previsto per l'anno 2025 è stato 2.984.000. La densità di popolazione era di 12 per kmq (30 per sq mi), con i più grandi concentrazioni intorno Muscat e sulla costa Batinah insieme, queste due regioni hanno più della metà della popolazione. L'ONU ha stimato che il 76 della popolazione viveva in aree urbane nel 2005, e che le aree urbane stavano crescendo a un tasso annuo di 3,27. La capitale, Muscat (Masqat), aveva una popolazione di 638.000 in quell'anno. Salalah è la città principale del sud. Non è frequente circolazione dei lavoratori tra Oman e gli Stati vicini. Nel 2000 ci sono stati 682.000 migranti che vivono in Oman, soprattutto lavoratori stranieri. Nel 2001, gli stranieri erano quasi il 25 della forza lavoro. Oman ha dichiarato che, entro la fine del 2003, cassieri, autisti, addetti alla sicurezza, e dei lavoratori in negozi e supermercati devono essere omaniti. Entro il 2007 ristoranti catering principalmente ai turisti sarebbe anche Omanized. Nel 2004, ci sono stati 7 i rifugiati ei richiedenti asilo 24. Il tasso migratorio netto è stato di una stima di 0,31 migranti per 1.000 abitanti nel 2005. La popolazione indigena è prevalentemente arabo, tranne sulla costa Batinah, dove vi sia una significativa Baluchi, iraniana, e la rappresentazione dell'Africa, e in Muscat e Matrah, dove ci sono Khojas e altri indiani, baluci, e pakistani. gruppi tribali sono stimati a numerare oltre 200. La lingua ufficiale è l'arabo. Urdu, Baluchi, e diversi dialetti indiani sono anche parlati, in particolare nelle città di Muscat e Matrah. L'inglese è insegnato come seconda lingua. La religione di stato è l'Islam. con la maggior parte della popolazione aderente al Ibadhi o sette sunnite. Le tribù del nord sono principalmente musulmani sunniti dei riti Hanbali, Shafai, e wahhabiti. Una minoranza della popolazione è musulmano sciita. C'è una piccola comunità di cittadini indù indiani e non vi è riferito un numero molto piccolo di cristiani. I non-musulmani, la maggioranza dei quali sono lavoratori immigrati noncitizen dell'Asia meridionale. sono liberi di culto durante chiese e templi, alcuni dei quali sono costruiti su un terreno donato dal Sultano. Lo statuto di base dello Stato permette per la libertà di praticare riti religiosi, purché questi riti non violino l'ordine pubblico. In pratica, il governo si è riservato il diritto di porre alcune restrizioni fedi non islamiche. I non musulmani non possono fare proselitismo di musulmani e gruppi non musulmani non possono pubblicare materiale religioso all'interno del paese. Alcune feste musulmane sono celebrate come feste nazionali. Nel 2002, ci sono stati 32,8 mila chilometri (20.382 mi) di strade, di cui erano lastricate soli 9.840 chilometri (6.115 mi), tra cui 550 km (342 mi) di superstrade. Una delle principali 800 km (500 mi) collegamenti autostradali nazwa nel nord di Thamarit e Salalah nella regione del Dhofar. Una strada costiera principale è stata posta da Muscat a Suhar, una distanza di 240 km (150 mi), e la strada da Muscat a Buraymi sul confine Emirati Arabi Uniti è stato completato. Nel 2003, ci sono stati 266,325 autovetture e 113,370 veicoli commerciali registrati. Non ci sono ferrovie o corsi d'acqua in Oman. Nel 2004, ci sono stati circa 136 aeroporti. A partire dal 2005, un totale di sei aveva aperto piste, e c'era anche un eliporto. L'aeroporto internazionale di Seeb, a 30 km (19 mi) a nord ovest di Muscat, è servita da numerose compagnie internazionali, tra cui Gulf Air, in cui l'Oman detiene una quota del 20. Un secondo aeroporto moderno, a Salalah, nel sud, serve i voli domestici. Nel 2003, circa 2.777.000 passeggeri sono stati trasportati su voli di linea internazionali e nazionali delle compagnie aeree. Minas Qabus, vicini a Muscat, è il principale porto nel nord, che serve il trasporto internazionale e regionale. Port Salalah, 1000 km (621 mi) il costo da Muscat è il principale porto per il sud. Inaugurato nel 1998, Port Salalah è l'unico porto tra l'Europa e Singapore che può ospitare le navi S-classe, i mondi più grande classe di navi container. Ora è tra i primi 20 porti container nel mondo in termini di capacità di movimentazione, e tra i primi 10 in termini di efficienza. Tutti greggio dell'Oman viene esportato da Minas al-Fahl, ad ovest di Matrah. Nel 2005, l'Oman aveva una nave mercantile (una nave passeggeri) di 1.000 TSL o più, per un totale di 15.430 tonnellate di stazza lorda. storia Omans possono essere ricondotti a tempi molto antichi. In Genesi 10:26 x2013 30, i discendenti di Joktan si dice che sono migrati fino a Sefar (ora Dhofar). La zona era già un centro commerciale e marinara in tempi dei Sumeri, e Fenici probabilmente ha visitato la regione costiera. Altri gruppi che probabilmente è venuto alla zona nei tempi antichi sono il Baida e Ariba, tribù semitiche da Arabia settentrionale, ora estinta la prima dinastia Himyar dallo Yemen, che cade sui persiani nel tempo di Ciro, circa 550 aC antichi navigatori greci e i Parti (174 x2013 136 aC). L'intera popolazione è stato convertito all'Islam durante la vita di Maometto, ma divenne ben presto l'Oman x2014 e x2014 rimane oggi il centro della setta Ibadhi, che sosteneva che ogni pio musulmano può diventare califfo o imam e che l'imam dovrebbe essere eletto. tribù dell'Oman hanno eletto i loro imam a partire dalla seconda metà del 8 ° secolo. Il primo contatto prolungato con l'Europa è venuto nel 1507 x2013 08, quando il portoghese ha sorpassato Muscat. Hanno mantenuto il controllo fino a quando non furono cacciati con l'aiuto Persico nel 1649. Nel corso dei prossimi 75 anni, l'Oman ha conquistato Mombasa. Mogadiscio. l'isola di Zanzibar, ei possedimenti portoghesi in Africa orientale. In seguito ha tenuto le parti di quella che ora sono l'Iran e il Pakistan. La prima è stata fondata nel sultanato Muscat circa 1775. Nel 1798, la Gran Bretagna ha concluso il suo primo trattato con Muscat. Detto bin Sultan (r.1804 x2013 56) è diventato dipendente dal sostegno britannico, e dopo la sua morte i suoi figli litigato sulla sua successione (il Ibadhi base principio è stato respinto). Così indebolito dalla divisione politica, Moscato ha perso il controllo degli interni. Nel 1920, il Trattato di Seeb è stato firmato tra il sultano di Muscat e l'imam di Oman, riconoscendo l'autonomia del imamato di Oman sotto la sovranità del sultano. Dal 1920-1954 ci fu pace comparativa. Alla morte del imam nel 1954, Sultan detto bin Taymur trasferisce a succedergli. That year, Said concluded a new agreement with Petroleum Development (Oman) Ltd. a British-managed oil company that had the oil concession for Oman. By this agreement, the company maintained a small army, the Muscat and Oman Field Force (MOFF), raised and led by the British. In early 1955, it subdued the area up to and including the town of Ibri. When British troops took Buraymi, MOFF occupied the rest of Oman and expelled the rebellious new imam. By 1959 when the last of the insurgents supporting the imam were defeated, the sultan voided the office and declared the Treaty of Seeb terminated. The imam, exiled in Saudi Arabia, tried in vain to muster Arab support for his return. Under the terms of the Anglo-French Declaration of 10 March 1962, the sultanate of Muscat was proclaimed an independent and sovereign state. Certain Arab states charged, however, that the United Kingdom was maintaining a colonial presence in the former imamate of Oman. In 1965 and repeatedly thereafter, the UN called unsuccessfully for the elimination of the British presence. Oman joined the UN late in 1971. Meanwhile, as early as 1964, a tribal rebellion had been brewing in the Dhofar region. The rebel tribes, organized as the Dhofar Liberation Front and aided by South Yemen, later joined forces with the Marxist Popular Front for the Liberation of Oman and the Arab Gulf. The insurgency was suppressed in 1975 with direct military assistance from Jordan and Iran. A treaty with Yemen defining the border was ratified in 1992. Qaboos bin Said ousted his father, Said bin Taymur, on 23 July 1970 and has ruled as sultan since that time. He immediately changed the name of the country from Muscat and Oman to the Sultanate of Oman and has presided over an extensive modernization program, easing his fathers harsh restrictions and opening the country to the outside world, while preserving political and military ties with the British. Oman has been a proponent of cooperation among the Gulf States. A member of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), it has also sought to keep good relations with Iran. Because Oman dominates the Strait of Hormuz, which links the Gulf of Oman with the Persian Gulf. its strategic importance drew it and the United States closer together with the start of the Iran x2013 Iraq war in 1979. Under the terms of a pact signed in 1980, US military personnel and ships have been given access to Omani military and naval bases and are permitted to preposition military material for use in contingencies. Oman pursues a moderate, independent foreign policy. Unlike most Arab states, it supported the Camp David accords and did not break relations with Egypt following its peace treaty with Israel. Similarly, during the Gulf War, Oman sent forces to Saudi Arabia and granted strategic facilities to the United States, but did not sever diplomatic relations with Iraq during the conflict. In 1994 reports began appearing of arrests of critics of the Omani government. It was estimated that the Omani government detained nearly 500 such critics with points of view ranging from the Arab nationalist Bath movement to Islamists supporting the Sunni Muslim Brotherhood. Through 1995 Oman was considered as having graduated from the ranks of under-developed nations needing World Bank loans. Its ambitious economic goals included a 10-year plan for cultivating tourism and plans to improve its infrastructure, including water desalinization. However, in 1998, the economy was adversely affected when the price of oil dropped below 10 per barrel, a 25-year low. Oman agreed with the Organization of Oil Exporting Countries (OPEC), of which Oman is not a member, to reduce global oil production by 2.1 million barrels of crude per day until April 2000 in the hope of raising oil prices to 18 per barrel. In October 1999, the Omani oil minister recommended extending oil production cuts beyond the date originally proposed. Meanwhile, Oman has sought to diversify its economic base and ease its dependence on oil. A gas liquefaction plant at Sur was slated for completion in 2000. As of 1999, Oman held to a middle-of-the-road stance of conciliation and compromise in Middle Eastern politics. In January 1999, Omans foreign minister met with his counterparts from Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Syria. and Yemen at a closed meeting in Cairo to forge a position on the question of Iraq. Also in 1999, Omans sultan, Qaboos bin Said, signed an agreement with the president of the United Arab Emirates defining the borders between Oman and the emirate of Abu Dhabi. In October 2001, extensive Omani-British military exercises in the Omani desert coincided with the launch of strikes against the Taliban in Afghanistan . During 2002 and into 2003, Oman, along with the other countries of the Persian Gulf, was confronted with the situation of a potential US-led war with Iraq. On 8 November 2002, the UN Security Council unanimously passed Resolution 1441, calling on Iraq to immediately disarm itself of weapons of mass destruction (WMD) and WMD weapons capabilities, to allow the immediate return of International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and UN weapons inspectors, and to comply with all previous UN resolutions regarding the country since the end of the Gulf War in 1991. If Iraq was found to be in material breach of the resolution, serious consequences were to result. The United States and the United Kingdom began amassing troops in the region, and by the end of February 2003, the number of troops in the Persian Gulf was approximately 200,000. As of 1 February, there were 3,600 US military personnel, 100 elite British special forces, and approximately 40 aircraft in Oman. As well, a new airbase was under construction, which would have a 14,000-ft. runway. However, Oman has said it would not act in a conflict with Iraq without UN approval. Omans borders with all its neighbors have been demarcated. A 2002 demarcation of the Oman-UAE border was ratified in 2003, including Omans Musandam Peninsula and Al Madhah exclave, but details were not made public. At an Arab League summit held at Sharm el-Sheik, Egypt, on 1 March 2003, sharp divisions between Arab leaders on the Iraq situation emerged, particularly between Libya and Saudi Arabia. However, the leaders issued a declaration expressing complete rejection of any aggression on Iraq, and called for continuing UN weapons inspections. It also called upon Iraq to disarm itself of WMD and the missiles needed to deliver them. At the summit, some leaders argued war was inevitable and that the countries of the region should prepare for its aftermath some argued that war could be avoided if Iraq were to comply with weapons inspections and a third group argued that the summit should issue an unequivocal antiwar declaration. Since 2000 the Omani government promoted an Omanisation campaign to ensure jobs for citizens, to promote self-reliance in human resources, and also to reduce dependence on expatriates. Expatriates with valid work permits in the private sector were replaced or left jobs, over 130,000 between January 2003 and July 2005. This policy also resulted in the massive repatriation of guest workers whose employment visas had expired. In May 2005 two cargo ferries carrying 1,018 Pakistanis were deported from Oman, some 40,000 Pakistanis having been deported from Oman between 2003 and 2005. In August 2005 undocumented or overstaying Filipinos in Oman were urged to return to the Philippines because of the sultanates impending crackdown on undesirable foreigners. In October 2005 special arrangements were made for 5,700 Indian overstayers to exit Oman. In March 2004 the Sultan appointed Omans first female minister with portfolio and added two more women to the cabinet by years end. These appointments were a clear indication that the government was leading by example and that the participation of women in national life was a priority. In addition, the most capable people available filled government positions. In January 2005, nearly 100 suspected Islamists were arrested. Thirty-one Omanis were subsequently convicted of trying to overthrow the government, but were pardoned in June. This group was neither Sunni followers of Osama bin Laden nor Shiites loyal to Iran or Iraq, but preachers, Islamic scholars, university professors and government figures from the Ibadi faith. It is the sect to which Sultan Qaboos and the majority of Omani belong. The dissidents wanted a return to a strict Islamic state, the imamate, contesting the pro-Western policies of the Sultan. In October 2005, a free trade agreement with the United States was finalized. Omans sultan is an absolute monarch. The sultanate has no constitution, legislature, or suffrage, until of late. In 1970, Sultan Qaboos appointed a cabinet of ministers responsible for various government departments and functions. A state Consultative Council, established in 1981, consisted of 55 appointed representatives of government, the private sector, and regional interests. This body was replaced in 1991 by a Majlis Al-Shura, a 59-seat Consultative Council, which was seen as a first step toward popular participation in government. The Sultan expanded the membership to 80 seats after the countrys first national census in 1993. The Council has no formal legislative powers but may question government ministers, and recommend changes to new laws on economic and social policy. These recommendations have led to amendments to proposed decrees. On 6 November 1996 the Sultan decreed the countrys first basic law which provides for citizens basic rights in writing and a body known as the Majlis Oman (Council of Oman) that includes a new Council of State, Majlis Al-Dawla (upper chamber), and the Consultative Council, Majlis al-Shura (lower chamber). In 2000, the Consultative Council was expanded to 83 seats, and members were chosen by the vote of 175,000 government-selected electors. In January 2001, the sultan appointed 53 members of the Majlis Al-Dawla, including 5 women. In November 2002, the sultan extended voting rights to all citizens over the age of 21, except for members of the military and security forces. Voters in Oman were previously chosen from among tribal leaders, intellectuals, and businessmen. The first elections to the Majlis al-Shura in which all citizens over the age of 21 (except for members of the military and security forces) were entitled to vote were held in October 2003. Members are elected for four-year term the body has some limited power to propose legislation, but otherwise has only advisory powers. Little change in the political make-up of the lower house resulted from this election. The next Majlis al-Shura elections are scheduled for 2007. There are no legal political parties nor, at present, any active opposition movement. As more and more young Omanis return from education abroad, it seems likely that the traditional, tribal-based political system will have to be adjusted. The nation is divided into five regions, three governates (Muscat, Musandam, Dhofar) and 59 wilayats (districts), governed by walis. Most wilayats are small in area, but can vary greatly in population. The walis is appointed by the Minister of Interior and answerable to them. The walis is responsible for local disputes, collecting taxes, and maintaining peace. The governors of Muscat, Musandam, Dhofar are appointed directly by the Sultan and hold Minister of State rank. Shariah courts based on Islamic law administer justice, with the Central Magistrate Court at Muscat. There are four additional magistrate courts in Suh x101 r, x15E x16B r, Salalah, and Nizwa. Qadis, or religious judges, appointed by the sultan, function within each wilayat. Appeals from the Central Magistrate Court are made to the sultan, who exercises powers of clemency. The Shariah courts, adhering to Islamic law, equate the testimony of one man with that of two women. There is also a security court, rarely used, which handles internal security cases. A commercial dispute may be resolved at the Authority for Settlement of Commercial Disputes. In 1996, the sultan promulgated a basic law providing for citizens basic rights. The basic law affirms the independence of the judiciary. There are no jury trials. Omans armed forces, including the Royal Household troops, had 41,700 foreign and domestic active personnel in 2005. The Army had 25,000 personnel equipped with 117 main battle tanks, 37 Scorpion light tanks, 145 reconnaissance vehicles, 191 armored personnel carriers, and 233 artillery pieces. The Air Force had 4,100 personnel, and was equipped with 48 combat capable aircraft, including 36 fighter ground attack aircraft, of which 12 were used in a training capacity. The Navy numbered 4,200 active members. Major naval units included two corvettes and eight patrolcoastal combatants. Paramilitary forces consisted of the 4,000man Tribal Home Guard (Firqats) and a police coast guard of 400, which included a small police air wing. The elite Royal Household brigade, naval unit, and air unit numbered 6,400, including 2 special forces regiments. An estimated 2,000 foreigners also served in Omans armed forces. In 2005 Omans defense budget totaled 3.02 billion. On 7 October 1971, Oman gained membership in the United Nations it belongs to ESCWA and several nonregional specialized agencies, such as the FAO, ILO, UNESCO, UNIDO, the World Bank, and the WHO. Oman also participates in the WTO, the Arab Bank for Economic Development in Africa, the Arab Fund for Economic and Social Development, the Arab Monetary Fund, the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), G-77, the Gulf Cooperation Council, and the Arab League. Oman is a member of the Nonaligned Movement. In environmental cooperation, is part of the Basel Convention, the Convention on Biological Diversity, the London Convention, the Kyoto Protocol, the Montr xE9 al Protocol, MARPOL, and the UN Conventions on the Law of the Sea, Climate Change, and Desertification. Omans location at the entrance to the Persian Gulf for centuries made it an entrep xF4 t for trade, including a substantial traffic in arms and slaves. Its prosperity declined in the 19th century, when, as a result of Western dominance in Asia, traditional trade patterns and communications routes were radically changed. Omans economy then became predominantly dependent on agriculture and fishing. The situation changed with the discovery of oil in 1964. Production began in August 1967, and by the mid-1970s most of the economy revolved around oil. The hydrocarbons sector accounted for 77 of export earnings and government revenues in 2000. Despite diversification efforts, petroleums share of GDP rose from 37 in 1994 to 38.2 in 1995 to 40 in 1999. In 2000, petroleums share jumped to 49 of GDP as oil prices rose sharply from near-record lows in early 1999. As of January 2001, Omans proven oil reserves were 5.5 billion barrels. At the estimated high production level of 959,816 barrels per day in 2001, the reserves would last another 15.7 years. The governments Oman 2020 program looks to a fundamental transformation of the economy by that time. The production of natural gas has become a significant factor of the economy. Gas reserves increased from 9.8 trillion cubic feet in 1990 to 29.3 trillion cubic feet 2001, and government predictions are that this will eventually expanded to some 40 trillion cubic feet in 1999 and are further increasing. Two major extensions of Omans pipeline connections from gas deposits in the center of the country were completed in August 2002: a pipeline to the north coast at Sohar and a pipeline to the south coast at Salalah. With the recovery of gas prices from in the latter half of 1999, GDP grew at extraordinarily high rates of 15.6 in 1999 and 19.6 in 2000. Inflation was negligible at 0.4 in 1999 and 1.4 in 2000. In 2004, the GDP growth rate was 0.7, down from 2.3 in 2003, and 1.9 in 2002 in 2005, the economy expanded by an estimated 1.6. The inflation rate has been fairly stable, and at 0.3 in 2004 it did not pose any problems to the economy, although it was not ideal for the export sector. The unemployment rate was tagged at 15, but only a certain layer of society is affected by it. To respond to this problem, the government is trying to replace foreign expatriate workers with local workers. In 2005 work on a new liquefied gas facility progressed, but plans are made to diversify the economy for the days when Omans natural resources will be exhausted. The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA ) reports that in 2005 Omans gross domestic product (GDP) was estimated at 40.1 billion. The CIA defines GDP as the value of all final goods and services produced within a nation in a given year and computed on the basis of purchasing power parity (PPP) rather than value as measured on the basis of the rate of exchange based on current dollars. The per capita GDP was estimated at 13,400. The annual growth rate of GDP was estimated at 1.9. The average inflation rate in 2005 was 0.4. It was estimated that agriculture accounted for 2.8 of GDP, industry 40, and services 57.1. According to the World Bank, in 2003 remittances from citizens working abroad totaled 39 million or about 15 per capita and accounted for approximately 0.2 of GDP. Foreign aid receipts amounted to 45 million or about 17 per capita. The World Bank reports that in 2003 household consumption in Oman totaled 8.75 billion or about 3,368 per capita based on a GDP of 21.7 billion, measured in current dollars rather than PPP. Household consumption includes expenditures of individuals, households, and nongovernmental organizations on goods and services, excluding purchases of dwellings. In 2001 it was estimated that approximately 22 of household consumption was spent on food, 25 on fuel, 13 on health care, and 21 on education. The estimated workforce of Oman was 920,000 in 2002. As of 2000, the services sector accounted for 82.1 of the labor force, with industry accounting for 11.2, agriculture 6.4, and the remaining 0.4 in undefined occupations. As of 2004, the countrys unemployment rate was estimated at 15. Omani law does not provide the right of union formation. The law forbids a strike for any reason. Collective bargaining is not permitted, however there exist labor-management committees in firms with more than 50 workers. These committees are not authorized to discuss conditions of employment, including hours and wages. The Labor Welfare Board provides a venue for grievances. The minimum working age is 13, but this provision is not enforced against the employment of children in family businesses or on family farms. The minimum wage for nonprofessional workers was 260 per month in 2002. However, many classes of workers (domestic servants, farmers, government employees) are not required to receive the minimum wage and the government is not consistent in its enforcement of the minimum wage law. The private sector workweek is 40 to 45 hours long, while government officials have a 35-hour workweek. Agriculture contributes only about 3 to GDP, but engages 37 of the economically active population, mostly at a subsistence level. The potential for expanding agriculture in Oman is good. Land use is determined primarily by the availability of water. There is extensive cultivation along the Batinah and Shumailiyah coasts in the interior, however, cultivation is confined to areas near wadis, where water is taken off by a system of water channels (fallaj). The total area under cultivation is estimated to be about 80,000 hectares (198,000 acres). The principal agricultural product is the date, at 238,000 tons in 2004. On the Baunah coast, groves containing some 10 million date palm trees form a strip 240-km (150-mi) long and 40-km (25-mi) wide. Fruits grown in Dhofar include bananas, mangoes, and coconuts. Citrus fruits (notably limes), nuts, melons, bananas, coconuts, alfalfa, and tobacco are also grown. Tomatoes, cabbages, eggplant, okra, and cucumbers are important winter crops. Frankincense is traditionally produced from about 8,000 trees growing wild in Dhofar. Along the Batinah coast, a wide variety of produce is grown, including fruits, wheat, rice, and durra. Agricultural exports were valued at 402 million in 2004, while agricultural imports amounted to 1.17 billion that year. Goats, sheep, donkeys, and camels are widely raised. In 2005 there were 1,070,000 goats, 375,000 sheep, 335,000 head of cattle, 123,000 camels, and 28,500 donkeys. There is a relatively large-scale cattle-raising industry in Dhofar. Total meat production in 2005 was 43,400 tons. Oman estimates that it is 53 self-sufficient in milk production, 46 in beef, 44 in eggs, and 23 in milk. The camels of Oman are famous for their fine riding qualities. The waters of the Gulf of Oman are rich in sardines, mackerel, shrimp, lobsters, crayfish, tuna, barracudas, groupers, and sharks. The annual catch in 2003 was 138,833 tons, mainly sardines. Fishing employs about 26,000 persons. Investment in onshore processing and refrigeration plants, harbors, and repair yards has facilitated commercial fishing development. Exports of fish products amounted to 79.9 million in 2003. The government subsidizes the cost of boats and engines to promote employment in fishing. Fish stocks and breeding patterns are studied at a research center south of Muscat. In 1996, three new fishing harbors were opened (at Bukha in Musandam, Quriyat, and Shinas), at a combined cost of ro10.3 million and with a capacity for about 1,000 small boats. Forest coverage is less than 1. The use of wood as the sole fuel and overgrazing by goats have depleted the forests of Oman, but the interior of the country is fairly well wooded. Oman imported 74.1 million in forest products during 2004. Petroleum and natural gas dominated Omans economy. Although large deposits of copper have been discovered northwest of Muscat, with other deposits also discovered at Hajl al-Safiand at Rakah, in Ibri, there was no recorded production of mined copper in 2004. However, an estimated 224,000 metric tons of smelted copper was produced from copper ore imports. In 2003, only 4 kg of gold was produced, down from an estimated 188 kg in 2002 and 603 kg in 2001. There was no recorded gold production in 2004. Nor was there any recorded silver production in 2003 or 2004. In 2000, National Mining Co. of Oman explored for copper, gold, and silver near Sohar, and the Metal Mining Agency of Japan completed exploration for copper and gold in the South Batinaha area. Output of chromium (gross weight) in 2004 was 18,575 metric tons, up from 13,000 metric tons in 2003. Sand and gravel production in 2004 was estimated at 22 million metric tons, unchanged from 2003, while marble output in 2004 totaled an estimated 140,000 metric tons. Oman in 2004 also produced, gypsum, salt, sulfur and hydraulic cement. Omans reserves of oil and natural gas are modest in size when compared to other countries in the Middle East. However, the countrys importance to the worlds oil markets lies in its geographic location overlooking the Strait of Hormuz. Oman is not a member of the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), but is a leader in IPEC, the main independent petroleum exporters organization. As of 1 January 2005, Omans proven oil reserves were estimated at 5.5 billion barrels, most of which are located in its central and northern regions. In 2003, oil production averaged an estimated 784,000 barrels per day, with crude oil accounting for 781,000 barrels per day. In that same year, domestic oil consumption was estimated at 59,000 barrels per day, allowing for net exports of 725,000 barrels per day. Omans primary customers in 2003 were China. Japan, South Korea, India. Thailand. and Singapore. Omans crude oil refining capacity, as of 1 January 2005, was estimated at 85,000 barrels per day. Oman, as of 1 January 2005, had proven natural gas reserves estimated at 29.3 trillion cu ft. In 2002, natural gas production and domestic consumption were estimated at 530 billion cu ft and 231 billion cu ft, respectively. Although more than 22 million tons of coal deposits have been found in Omans Wadi Fisaw and Wadi Muswa areas, near the city of Sur, these deposits have yet to be developed commercially. As of 1 January 2002, Omans electric power capacity was estimated at 2.4 GW, which in 2002 was entirely dedicated to conventional thermal sources. Electric power output in 2002 was estimated at 9.8 billion kWh. Demand for power in 2002 came to 9.031 billion kWh. Besides oil, industry in Oman still consists largely of small-scale food-processing enterprises. Many new industries were set up in the 1980s, including a cement plant with an annual capacity of 609,000 tons. In 1995, Omans cement production totaled 1.4 million tons. The majority of these manufacture nonmetallic mineral products followed by wood and wood products, and fabricated metal products. The Rusail industrial estate had 81 working factories by 1996, with 15 more under construction. The 250 million Salalah Container Port opened in 1998 as a magnet for value-added manufacturing enterprises. Another 250 industrial port in the Sohar on which construction began in 1999 was expected to be operational in 2003. By the latest available estimate, industry comprised 40 of the GDP in 1999. Industry accounted for 40 of economic output in 2005 (with oil and gas production carrying the lion share), and was bested by services with a 57.1 share. Agriculture continues to be the weakest economic sector, with just a 2.8 share in the GDP. The industrial production growth rate was only 0.9, indicating that the sector is going through a recession period. Most research conducted in Oman has been done at the behest of the government agriculture, minerals, water resources, and marine sciences have drawn the most attention. Sultan Qaboos University, founded in 1985, has colleges of science, medicine, engineering, and agriculture. In 1987 x2013 97, science and engineering students accounted for 13 of college and university enrollments. The Institute of Health Sciences, under the Ministry of Health, was founded in 1982. Muscat Technical Industrial College, founded in 1984, has departments of computing and mathematics, laboratory science, and electrical, construction, and mechanical engineering. The Oman Natural History Museum, founded in 1983, includes the national herbarium and the national shell collection. All of these organizations are located in Muscat. Omans high technology exports in 2002 totaled 36 million, or 2 of the countrys manufactured exports. For the period 1990 to 2001, Oman had four researchers for every one million people. Though oil is the strongest basis for the Omani economy, agriculture and fishing are still very much a part of the traditional lifestyle. Most of the governments development plans are aimed at industry to support greater foreign trade, rather than to provide consumer products for the domestic market. Muscat and Matrah are the primary commercial centers. Much of the business is carried on by long-established and settled Khoja and Hindu merchants, but supermarkets and other larger retail establishments are beginning to take root. Normal business hours are 8:30 am to 1:30 pm and 4 to 7 pm, Saturday x2013 Wednesday banking hours are generally 8 am to noon, though some banks reopen from 4 to 6 pm. Banks and businesses close at 11:30 am on Thursday and remain closed Friday. Business hours are reduced during the Ramadan fast. Oman runs a considerable trade surplus. Since 1967, oil has been the chief export. In 2000 Omans major export commodities were crude petroleum (80) and motor vehicles and parts (3.4). Other exports included tobacco (1.2) and apparel (1.1). In 2000 Omans imports were distributed among the following categories: consumer goods, 18.2 food, 13.2 fuels, 1.7 industrial supplies, 20.2 machinery, 18.4 transportation, 25.7 and other, 2.6. In 2005, exports reached 19 billion (FOB x2014 Free on Board), while imports grew to 9 billion (FOB). The bulk of exports went to China (29.5), South Korea (17.5), Japan (11.5), Thailand (10.6), and the UAE (7.2). Imports included machinery and transport equipment, manufactured goods, food and live animals, and mainly came from the UAE (21.2), Japan (16.6), the United Kingdom (8.4), Italy (6), Germany (5.1), and the United States (4.7). Omans balance of payments account is dominated by crude oil export earnings, consumer and capital goods and services, imports payments, and by large outgoing remittances by foreign workers. The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) reported that in 2001 the purchasing power parity of Omans exports was 10.9 billion while imports totaled 5.4 billion resulting in a trade surplus of 5.5 billion. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) reported that in 2001 Oman had exports of goods totaling 11.1 billion and imports totaling 5.31 billion. The services credit totaled 349 million and debit 1.68 billion. Exports of goods totaled 13 billion in 2004, up from 12 billion in 2003. Imports grew from 6 billion in 2003, to 8 billion in 2004. The resource balance was consequently positive, but on a downward spiral x2014 6 billion in 2003, and 5 billion in 2004. A similar trend was registered for the current account balance, which deteriorated slightly from 880 million in 2003, to 443 million in 2004. Foreign exchange reserves (excluding gold) grew to almost 3.6 billion in 2004, covering more than five months of imports. The Central Bank of Oman, set up in April 1975, has powers to regulate credit and is authorized to make temporary advances to the government. Banks in Oman are generally in good financial shape because of close regulation by the Central Bank of Oman. All commercial banks in the sultanate instructed to raise their paid-up capital to ro10 million for local banks and ro3 million for foreign banks. The Central Bank of Oman advised all banks which were unable to comply with these new requirements to merge with other commercial banks. The Central Bank has been encouraging banks to merge in order to cut down on the oversupply of banking services. Banks are required to maintain a 12 level of capital adequacy and restrict consumer lending to 30 of the loan portfolio. In 2002, there were 15 local and foreign commercial banks and four specialized banks. The largest local bank is Bank Muscat, created through a merger of the former Bank Muscat and the Commercial Bank of Oman. In 2002, it had assets of 3.4 billion, deposits of 2.4 billion, and was followed in size by the National Bank of Oman, Oman International Bank, Oman Arab Bank, and Bank Dhofar Al Omani Al Fransi. The British Bank of the Middle East (BBME) was the first foreign bank to establish itself in Oman in 1948. Today, foreign banks, in descending order of local branch asset size, include British Bank, Standard Chartered Bank, The British Bank, Bank of Baroda, Bank Saderate Iran, Bank Melli Iran, Banque Banorabe, National Bank of Abu Dhabi, and Citibank. The banking sector has been under pressure to increase its proportion of Omani staff to 90, but the deadline for such a move has been progressively delayed. Because of the proliferation of branches concentrated in coastal areas, commercial banks now have to open two branches in the interior for every branch opened along the coast. The International Monetary Fund reports that in 2001, currency and demand deposits x2014 an aggregate commonly known as M1 x2014 were equal to 1.8 billion. In that same year, M2 x2014 an aggregate equal to M1 plus savings deposits, small time deposits, and money market mutual funds x2014 was 6.8 billion. An Omani stock market, the Muscat Securities Market (MSM), was officially established in 1988, but trading did not begin until the following year. By 2001 there were 91 companies listed on the exchange with a combined capitalization of 2.6 billion. The MSM has now established a link with the Bahrain Stock Exchange (BSE) where shares can be cross-listed. A similar agreement with Kuwait is expected. The MSM Index showed a 25.4 loss in 2001 a mere four years after posting a spectacular 141 gain in 1997. The drop-off has been attributed to speculation, over-valued offerings, the impact of the Asian financial crises, and the drop in oil prices. As of 2004, a total of 96 companies were listed on the MSM, which had a market capitalization of 6.325 billion. In 2004, the MSM 30 Index rose 23.8 from the previous year to 3,375.1. By 1997, one national insurance firm, the Oman National Insurance Co. (SAOG), and around 17 foreign-owned firms were operating in Oman. In 2003, the value of all direct written insurance premiums totaled 257 million, of which nonlife premiums accounted for 221 million. In 1999 (the latest date for which data was available) Omans top life insurer was Oman National Insurance Co. which had gross written life insurance premiums totaling 18.3 million. Data was not available for individual nonlife insurers. Although Oman is a relatively small oil producer, oil revenues support 69 of government expenditures. The government owns 60 of Petroleum Development (Oman) Ltd. (PDO), the main oil company. Higher oil prices in 1997 and a 5 cut in capital spending produced a budget deficit of only 47 million, a substantial improvement over 1996. With the fall in global oil prices in 1998, however, the governments budget fell deeply into deficit, and had to be financed by loans and by drawing down the State General Reserve Fund. In anticipation of still further drops in the price of oil, the government increased a number of taxes and imposed spending cuts of between 5 and 10 on most government ministries. The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) estimated that in 2005 Omans central government took in revenues of approximately 14.3 billion and had expenditures of 10.6 billion. Revenues minus expenditures totaled approximately 3.7 million. Public debt in 2005 amounted to 7.5 of GDP. Total external debt was 4.586 billion. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) reported that in 2001, the most recent year for which it had data, budgetary central government revenues were ro2,073,500 and expenditures were ro2,295,100. The value of revenues was us5,393,000 and expenditures us5,969,000, based on a official exchange rate for 2001 of us1 ro0.3845, as reported by the IMF. Government outlays by function were as follows: general public services, 13.3 defense, 35.3 public order and safety, 5.9 economic affairs, 9.2 housing and community amenities, 6.4 health, 6.6 recreation, culture, and religion, 1.8 education, 15.9 and social protection, 5.6. Introduced in 1971, a corporate income tax on commercial enterprises other than individual traders remains the only tax in the country. Resident companies and those resident in countries that are members of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) are subject to a 0 tax rate on their initial ro30,000 of income, and a 12 rate on income over that amount. Foreign company branches are taxed at a rate starting at 0 up to 30 for each of seven income levels. Companies engaged in agriculture, fishing and any other essential activity deemed by the government are exempt from income taxes. Oman has a comprehensive double taxation treaty with France . General import duties are 5 ad valorem on the CIF (cost, insurance, and freight) value of the good. Some luxury items have a 20 duty, while alcohol, tobacco, limes and pork products have a 100 duty placed on them. There are a number of exempt goods, including many imports from GCC member states. Protective tariffs are levied seasonably on a number of fruits and vegetables. The principal foreign investment is in the oil sector. Foreign private investment is officially encouraged in certain areas x2014 such as industry, agriculture, and fishing x2014 through an initial five-year tax exemption, which may be renewed for another five years. Foreign participation in a local company cannot exceed 65 (this also applies to the sharing of profits). Companies holding commercial agencies must also have at least 51 Omani participation. In 2002, the largest foreign investor was Royal Dutch Shell Oil, which holds a 34 of the shares of the state oil company, Petroleum Development Oman, and 30 of Oman Liquid Natural Gas. Other investors in the oil industry include Occidental Petroleum, Hapex, Amoco, and Elf Aquitaine. The Sultanate does not publish estimates of inbound and out-bound investment Foreign investment in the Muscat Securities Market (MSM) has averaged 15 x2013 16, but has dropped in absolute terms. In December 1999, foreign investment in the MSM was 867.8 million. A year later this had fallen to 730.5 million, and at the end of May 2001, foreign investment in the SMS was 708.9 million. No systematic information is available on foreign direct investment (FDI). However, it is known that Oman seeks to diversify its economic base, so it is actively seeking private foreign investors in information technology, tourism, and higher educational fields. In September 2004, total investment in listed Omani companies with foreign participation was estimated at 2.4 billion (with 9 of it being foreign investment). Omans economic policy operates under five-year development plans. Omans second five-year plan (1981 x2013 85) suffered to some extent from the impact of declining oil prices in the early 1980s. The objectives of the third development plan (1986 x2013 90) were to encourage the private sector to play a larger role in the economy and to expand such areas as agriculture, fishing, manufacturing, and mining. The fourth five-year development plan (1991 x2013 95), aimed to achieve average annual GDP growth rates of just over 6 and the diversification of the sources of national income in order to reduce the dependence on the oil sector. The declared aim of the fifth five-year plan (1996 x2013 2000) was to achieve a balanced budget. The fall in oil prices to near-record lows in 1998 subverted the goal of a zero budget deficit in 2000, but rising oil prices in 2000 allowed the government to cut the deficit to only 1.5 of GDP (301 million) in 2000. Omans sixth five-year development plan (2001 x2013 05) aims at lessening dependence on government spending and employment, and at making the private the engine of growth for the economy. The governments long-run development strategy is the Sultans Oman Vision 2020, which is designed to see the economy through the depletion of oil reserves. The emphases are on processes of Omanization, industrialization, and privatization. One of the most successful diversification projects has been the Salalah Container Port opened in November 1998. In 2000, it handled over 500,000 FEUs (40-foot equivalency unit) and ranked among the top 10 container ports in efficiency. A new industrial port is also being built at Sohar, to be operational in 2003. In terms of developing its natural gas potential, the government took a major step n October 2000 with the inauguration of the 2.64 billion liquefied natural gas project in Sur. Other gas development projects include plans for urea fertilizer plant in Sur, an aluminum smelter in Sohar, and petrochemical plant at Salalah. An emphasis on income diversification has opened the country to foreign participation in the form of joint ventures. The economy has recovered slightly in 2005, as a result of strong domestic demand growth. However, economic expansion rates are expected to be sluggish as long as oil production will not pick up. As soon as oil prices will increase, and imports will decrease, the economy will likely experience a healthy boom. Oman maintains a social security system that provides old-age pensions, disability and survivorship benefits to employed citizens ages 15 x2013 59 who are under a permanent work contract. This program is funded by 5 contributions from employees, 2 by the government, and 8 contribution by employers. Retirement is set at age 60 for men and age 55 for women. Work injury legislation provides disability and medical benefits for injured workers. Hospitalization and medical care are provided to workers. Islamic precepts result in de facto discrimination against women in a number of areas, such as inheritance. Traditional views on the subordinate role of women in society lead most women to work exclusively inside the home. Land grants and housing loans are rarely given to females. Some progress is being made, however, and women have begun to enter professional areas such as medicine and communications in greater numbers. The government has made efforts to increase educational opportunities for women. Women comprise roughly half of the 5,000 students at Sultan Qaboos University, and 50 of the total student body in the public school system. Women are required to get permission from a male relative to leave the country. Domestic abuse remains within the confines of the family, and sexual abuse of domestic employees remains a problem. As of 2004, there were no governmental programs for abused women. The welfare of children is funded adequately by the government. Human rights abuses include arbitrary arrest, prolonged detention and the mistreatment of prisoners. Human rights organizations are prohibited by law from operating in Oman, and international monitors are unable to inspect prisons. As of 2004, there were an estimated 126 physicians, 297 nurses, 11 dentists, and 22 pharmacists per 100,000 people. It was estimated that 89 of the population had access to health care services, 39 of the population had access to safe drinking water and 92 had adequate sanitation. Average life expectancy in 2005 was 73.13 years. Infant mortality that year was 19.51 per 1,000 live births. As of 2002, the crude birth rate and overall mortality rate were estimated at, respectively, 37.8 and 4 per 1,000 people. About 24 of married women (ages 15 to 49) were using contraception. The fertility rate was 4.3 children per woman living through her childbearing years. Children up to one year old were vaccinated against tuberculosis, 96 diphtheria, pertussis, and tetanus, 99 polio, 99 measles, 98 and hepatitis B, 99. The rates for DPT and measles were, respectively, 86 and 99. About 12 of children under five were malnourished and goiter was prevalent in 10 of school-age children. The HIVAIDS prevalence was 0.10 per 100 adults in 2003. As of 2004, there were approximately 1,300 people living with HIVAIDS in the country. There were an estimated 110 deaths from AIDS in 2003. In May 1973, Sultan Qabus approved the Law of Peoples Housing to make housing loans to needy Omanis. By 1985, 5,300 low-income units had been built. At the 1993 census, there was a total of 344,846 housing units nationwide. At the 2003 census, the total was at 430,996 housing units. About 39.7 of all housing units were traditional Arabic houses, 23.6 were villas, 17.3 were apartments, and 4.8 were rural homes. About 13.6 of all housing units were improvised housing. The average household has eight members. An Arabic house is a one-story, single-family detached structure consisting of several rooms with some type of central courtyard there is generally a boundary wall surrounding the home. A villa is similar to an Arabic house in structure but contains two floors. Rural houses are also similar in shape to an Arabic house, but often without a specific courtyard or complete boundary wall and generally made of a mixture of local materials such as mud and wood. Improvised housing consists of structures made of wood, hay, palm leaves, or other such materials. In 2003, about 98.1 of all traditional housing units had access to a public electricity network, 96.8 used gas for cooking, and 43.1 had piped drinking water. about 78.6 of all housing units were occupied. About 85.4 of all traditional units had an equipped kitchen, 91.3 had an equipped bathshower room, and 88.5 had flush toilets. An equipped room was defined as one that is linked to piped water and a piped sewage system. Elementary school (primary) covers a six-year course of study, which is followed by three years of preparatory school and three years of general secondary school. Academic results of the preparatory exams determine the type of secondary education the student will receive, either focusing on arts or sciences. Islamic schools offer the same courses as preparatory schools, as well as religious and Arabic studies. At the secondary level, boys may choose to attend a technical school. The academic year runs from September to June. In 2001, about 5 of children between the ages of four and five were enrolled in some type of preschool program. Primary school enrollment in 2003 was estimated at about 72 of age-eligible students. The same year, secondary school enrollment was about 69 of age-eligible students. It is estimated that about 73 of all students complete their primary education. The student-to-teacher ratio for primary school was at about 21:1 in 2003 the ratio for secondary school was about 17:1. In 1993, there were 252 literacy centers and 176 adult education centers. Three teachers colleges were functioning as of 1986. The Institute of Agriculture at Nazwa became a full college by 1985. Sultan Qaboos University opened in 1986. In 2001, about 8 of the tertiary age population were enrolled in some type of higher education program. The adult literacy rate for 2004 was estimated at about 74.4, with 82 for men and 65.4 for women. As of 2003, public expenditure on education was estimated at 4.6 of GDP. The library at Sultan Qaboos University has 145,000 volumes, and the Muscat Technical and Industrial College has 10,000 volumes. A British Council Library of almost 8,000 volumes was founded in 1973 in Matrah. The Library of Manuscripts and Documents (1976) contains the Sultanates most extensive collection of rare manuscripts. The Ministry of National Heritage and Culture administers the National Museum, the Oman Museum, the Qurm Museum, and the Natural History Museum, which includes the National Herbarium of Oman (a botanical garden) and the National Shell Collection. An Oil and Gas Museum opened in 1995 to chronicle the history of the industry in the nation. There is also a Childrens Museum. Postal, telephone, and telex systems are supervised by the Ministry of Posts, Telegraphs, and Telephones. By the end of 1991, the entire country was connected to a 79,000-line telephone network. In 2003, there were an estimated 84 mainline telephones for every 1,000 people about 2,100 people were on a waiting list for telephone service installation. The same year, there were approximately 229 mobile phones in use for every 1,000 people. Radio and television facilities are government owned color television was introduced in 1974. Satellite dish owners may receive programming from Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, and Yemen. As of 1999 there were 3 AM and 9 FM radio stations and 13 television broadcast stations, all controlled by the government. In 2003, there were an estimated 621 radios and 553 television sets for every 1,000 people. The same year, there were 35 personal computers for every 1,000 people and 71 of every 1,000 people had access to the Internet. There were six secure Internet servers in the country in 2004. Newspapers and journals in Arabic include the daily Al-Wattan (2002 circulation, 32,500) and Oman Daily Newspaper (15,560) and weekly periodicals such as Al-Aquida and Al-Usra. There are two English-language newspapers: Oman Daily Observer (22,000) and Times of Oman (15,000). A 1984 Press and Publication Law authorizes the state to censor domestic and imported foreign publications. Journalists are said to practice self-censorship to avoid harassment. Criticism of the sultan is explicitly illegal. There is a Chamber of Commerce and Industry in Muscat. There are some professional associations in the country, including the Oman Medical Association (est. 2001). Among the social and cultural organizations are the Oman Womens Association, the Oman Cultural Club (for university graduates), the Omani National Organization for Scouts and Guides, the National Union of Oman Students, and the Omani Historical Association (open to non-Omanis). There are sports associations representing such pastimes as squash, tennis, rugby, football (soccer), and track and field. Oman is cautiously developing tourism, which was discouraged by previous rulers. The visa is valid for one month after entry. Most large hotels have clubs that offer various recreational activities water sports are popular, but spear fishing has been prohibited as a conservation measure. In 2003, about 630,000 foreign visitors arrived in Oman, of whom 26 came from Europe. There were 6,473 hotel rooms with 9,809 beds and an occupancy rate of 39. Tourism expenditure receipts totaled 372 million that year. All travelers must have a valid passport and a visa. Visas are issued upon arrival at all entry points and can be used at anytime within six months of the issue date. The US Department of State estimated the daily cost of staying in Muscat at 240 in 2004. Omans great Islamic religious leader, whose followers are called Ibadhis, was Abdallah bin Ibad (fl.8th century) many of his teachings are still followed in Oman. Ahmad ibn Said (r.1741 x2013 83), founder of the present dynasty, freed Muscat from Persian rule. Sultan Qabus bin Said (b.1940) has ruled Oman since his removal of Said bin Taymur (1910 x2013 72), his father, in 1970. Oman has no territories or colonies. Casey-Vine, Paula. (ed.) Oman in History . London: Immel Publishers, 1995. Chatty, Dawn. Mobile Pastoralists: Development Planning and Social Change in Oman . New York: Columbia University Press, 1996. Clements, Frank. Oman . (rev. ed.) Santa Barbara, Calif. Clio, 1994. Oman and the United Arab Emirates. London: Lonely Planet, 2000. Rabi, Uzi. The Emergence of States in a Tribal Society: Oman under Said bin Taymur, 1932 x2013 1970 . Portland, Ore. Sussex Academic Press, 2006. Seddon, David (ed.). A Political and Economic Dictionary of the Middle East . Philadelphia: RoutledgeTaylor and Francis, 2004. Skeet, Ian. Oman: Politics and Development . New York: St. Martins, 1992. Stannard, Dorothy. (ed.) Oman and the United Arab Emirates . Singapore: APA Publications, 1998. Cite this article Pick a style below, and copy the text for your bibliography. COUNTRY OVERVIEW LOCATION AND SIZE. The Sultanate of Oman borders the Arabian Sea, the Gulf of Oman, and the Persian Gulf and shares borders with Yemen. the United Arab Emi-rates, and Saudi Arabia. Oman has an area of 212,460 square kilometers (82,030 square miles) and a coastline that totals 2,092 kilometers (1,299 miles). Comparatively, Oman occupies an area slightly smaller than Kansas. Muscat, Omans capital, is located on the countrys northeastern coastline. POPULATION. In July 2000 the population of Oman was estimated at 2,533,389, of whom 2,006,311 were Omani and 527,078 were non-Omani. Large expatriate communities (communities of foreigners who have left their own country to live and work abroad) are very common in the Gulf countries on account of the oil and services industries. In Oman many unskilled expatriates from Asia are employed to carry out menial jobs, although this community has been declining slowly since 1996. The Omani population increases on average by 2.7 percent a year and, as a result, the country has a very young population. Some 47 percent of Omanis are under the age of 20 compared to only 4 percent who are over the age of 60. In 2000 the birth rate stood at 38.08 births per 1,000 population, while the death rate stood at 4.16 per 1,000. With a projected annual population growth rate of 3.46 percent, the population is expected to reach 3,848,217 by the year 2015. The majority of the Omani population is Sunni Muslim, but a substantial number of people x2014 including the ruling family x2014 follow Ibahism, an offshoot of Shia Islam. Given Omans long trading history, its population is a mixture of different races and even one of its most prominent mercantile families is of Hindu descent. Oman was a hub for the slave trade in the 18th and 19th century and although this practice was abolished in the 20th century, many continue to work for the families that previously owned their ancestors. Employment in Oman is largely dependent on nationality. In the public sector . Omanis held 70 percent of the jobs in 1999, while in the private sector x2014 which contains most of the lower-paying jobs x2014 90 percent of the employees were from foreign countries. Rising unemployment in Oman has forced the government to realize that it can no longer pursue its policy of guaranteeing jobs to young Omanis entering the labor market and it is now focusing on increasing employment opportunities for Omanis in the private sector. Oman has seen a dramatic migration of people to the cities in search of better jobs the largest proportion of the population is found in the capital city Muscat and in the larger northern towns of Suhar, Nizwa, and Sur. OVERVIEW OF ECONOMY Historically, Oman has been a gateway for trade between Asia and the Middle East. Its capital, Muscat, is the countrys most developed city as well as the center of economic activity, thanks to its coastal location. The strategic Musandam peninsula gives Oman control over the land adjacent to the vital Strait of Hormuz, through which a majority of the worlds oil passes. Oil is the most important factor in the Omani economy and it is the oil industry that is the catalyst for growth in gross domestic product (GDP ). GDP growth averaged 4.4 percent between 1993 and 1996, reached 6.2 percent in 1997, and fell to 2.9 percent in 1998 due to the crash in global oil prices. Crude oil has accounted for over 30 percent of Omans GDP since 1980. Oman differs from other Gulf countries such as Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emi-rates in that its reserves of oil are difficult to extract from the ground, limited in quantity, and predicted to run out in 17 years. Given that the oil industry is not labor intensive, the population in the Sultanate is growing rapidly, and the public sector is over-staffed, there is a serious unemployment problem in the country. However, the government has never released any unemployment statistics and no credible estimates have been made since 1995 due to international skepticism about the official population figures. Oman is a free market economy, but the government is at present the most important factor in the economy, both as an employer and as a purchaser of goods and services. The Omani economy has been growing steadily over the last 25 years and considerable development has taken place. However, with the fluctuations in the global price of oil, an oil industry that will soon be negligible, massive investments made in infrastructure . and hence shrinking foreign exchange reserves . there is a pressing need to diversify the economy. It is especially important to expand the sources of export earnings as well as to provide jobs for a growing population. These 2 goals form the basis of Omans policy initiatives. The government has encouraged private domestic and foreign investors to take the lead in promoting these initiatives, and a period of structural transformation from primary to manufactured exports has begun. In the late 1980s the governments commitment to economic diversification coincided with the discovery of abundant natural gas and since this time, drilling sites for both gas and oil are to be found all over the country. The Omani government has announced that it intends to implement a 5-year plan (2001-2006) in order to address these important challenges. In addition, policymakers will also have to focus on Omans membership in the World Trade Organization (WTO). This will expose the country to even more foreign competition. Political parties in Oman are not legal, but the major trading families who control the bulk of the countrys trade and industry are very powerful groups and are represented in the government. In 1998 Oman received US509,100,000 in official development assistance, the largest portion of which came from the United Kingdom. a country with which Oman enjoys strong ties. Oman also has a good relationship with the European Union and much improved relations with the United States its main trading partners are Japan and China. The economys main exports are oil, live animals, animal products, textiles, base metals, and mineral products. Before the discovery of oil in the 1960s, the Omani economy was dependent on agriculture, however, in 1999 this sector accounted for 2 percent of GDP due to the lack of water supply. Nevertheless, it still employs a large number of people along the northern coast and in the south. POLITICS, GOVERNMENT, AND TAXATION Oman has been ruled by the Royal Al Bu Said family since the 18th century. Political parties are not allowed in the country and there are no directly elected representatives. The current sultan, Qaboos Bin Said Al Said, overthrew his father in a palace coup in 1970 and seized the throne. Although the family has traditionally ruled over all state affairs, the new sultan has been careful to balance tribal, ethnic, and regional interests and as a result he has placed several tribal leaders in the government. In 1991 the sultan established the 59-seat Consultative Council, or Majlis Ash-Shura, to act as a consultative body, thus allowing a limited form of political expression. The government selects council members from lists of nominees proposed by each of the 59 wilayats (regions). Nevertheless, the country is an absolute hereditary monarchy and the sultan still rules by royal decree. He can appoint and fire all council ministers as well as ministers in the defense department, the department of foreign affairs, and the department of finance. Oman did not have a constitution until 1996, when the sultan promulgated (proclaimed) the Basic Law by decree. This basic law clarifies the royal succession, provides for a prime minister, bars ministers from holding interests in companies doing business with the government, establishes a bicameral legislature, and guarantees basic civil liberties for Omani citizens. The legislature has no power to overturn the sultans wishes. Its role has been purposefully ill-defined so as to render it a fairly ineffective body. The state promises to provide health care and education for all citizens as well as maintain security through the use of the army. Basic freedoms such as freedom of the press are touched upon, however, they are not clearly defined and are still very restricted. The Omani legal system is based both on English common law and Islamic law. The ultimate authority in law remains the sultan and he has not yet accepted compulsory jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice (this institution has its seat in The Hague and is the principal judicial organ of the United Nations). The major source of government revenue does not come from taxation but from oil revenues. The only direct taxes in Oman are income tax (which ranges from 15 to 45 percent) and some regional taxes the only indirect tax is customs duty . There are 5 percent taxes on hotel and restaurant bills, a 2 percent tax on electricity bills exceeding OR50. Oman makes no distinction between resident and non-resident companies. If a company has income from Oman that requires occasional visits to the Sultanate, the income will be considered taxable. Tax rates on non-petroleum, foreign-owned firms were lowered in October 1996 for all except those firms with greater than 90 percent foreign ownership. The nature of the relationship between the petroleum companies and the government will often govern taxation and royalties on petroleum producers. Labor law and the Oman tax law also affects a foreigners ability to do business in Oman. There is no complete body of regulations codifying these laws and many government decisions are made on an ad hoc basis. INFRASTRUCTURE, POWER, AND COMMUNICATIONS Due to the large-scale program of road construction carried out by the Ministry of Communications over the past 3 decades, there are now approximately 6,000 kilometers (3,720 miles) of paved roads and 24,000 kilometers (14,880 miles) of unpaved roads in Oman. In 1970 there were only 10 kilometers (6 miles) of paved roads and about 1,700 kilometers (1,054 miles) of unpaved road in the entire country. The number of licensed automobiles on the road increased from 261,627 in 1992 to 404,375 in 1998 and this increase in traffic also led to an increase in the number of road deaths from 218 in 1992 to 478 in 1998. Oman does not have a rail system. The countrys main airport, Muscat Seeb International, has a capacity of 1.3 million passengers. The b Data are from the Internet Software Consortium (isc. org ) and are per 10,000 people. SOURCE: World Bank. World Development Indicators 2000. airport has been fully modernized and boasts duty-free shopping areas, impressive lounges, and large transit areas. The main runway has been extended to 3,585 meters (11,760 feet) and the passenger terminals have been expanded to handle 3,000 passengers an hour. In 1995 the total number of passengers passing through Seeb International airport amounted to 2,176,033. Salalah, the countrys second airport, which was built initially as a military installation, began operating a passenger terminal in 1986 and the main runway was extended in 1992. Oman now has 6 civil airports in total at Seeb, Salalah, Sur, Masirah, Khasab, and Diba in Musandam. The countrys main port is Mina Sultan Qaboos, which was completed in 1974 with a capacity to handle 2.2 million tons annually. Many improvements have since been made, including dredging the harbor entrance to a depth of 13 meters (42 feet). The second-largest port is called Mina Raysut and it is this port that serves Salalah and the Governorate of Dhofar. The construction of a third port in Suhar started in 1999 and the project is expected to cost US250 million. Electrical power in Oman is supplied both by the public sector and by the private sector. In 1999 the total national production amounted to 5.2 billion kilowatt hours (kWh) with consumption reaching 4.9 billion kWh. In 1999 there were 31 power stations with a total installed capacity of 1,662 megawatts. The government-owned General Telecommunications Organization (GTO) was established in 1980 and was responsible for setting up the modern telephone system throughout the country. Thirty years ago there were only 500 lines in and around the capital and international telephone calls could be made only through radio channels. As of 1998, all the telephone exchanges became digital and one can now telephone all over the world. Oman has an overall telephone capacity of 420,000 lines, both fixed and mobile, and given the widespread use of the telephone, it is estimated that Oman will need about 500,000 telephone lines by the year 2020, which will require massive investment. ECONOMIC SECTORS The Omani economy is a diverse one with services contributing 57 percent of GDP and industry contributing approximately 40 percent. However, over the past 40 years there has been a major shift in the structure of the economy. In the 1950s and 1960s, when the oil fields had not yet been discovered, the agricultural sector drove the economy. This sector has diminished in importance since the early 1970s, representing only 3 percent of GDP in 1999, whereas the export of oil and petroleum-related products and the manufacturing of goods such as textiles has increased. The sectors output is heavily dependent upon the weather, and accurate figures on employment in agriculture remain unknown. AGRICULTURE Prior to the discovery of oil in the 1960s, the agricultural sector was central in the Omani economy. However, in 1999 the sector contributed only 3 percent to GDP and was heavily subsidized by the government. Oman is not self-sufficient in food and in 1995 the country spent US572 million on food and live animals. This figure rose to US650 million in 1999. There are efforts underway to develop self-sufficiency in staple foods. The main crops grown in Oman are tomatoes, eggplant, dates, bananas, limes, and carrots. The principal agricultural area is found along the Batinah coast, in the northeast between Muscat and Diba al-Hisn, which accounts for about half the total crop area of approximately 101,000 acres. In the south, agriculture is centered on a small coastal plain that is fed by monsoon rain coming from the Indian Ocean. In spite of its small contribution to GDP, the agricultural sector is still a major employer. In 1994, the World Bank estimated that over half the Omani labor force was working in the agricultural sector. The Omani government reports that a total of 140,000 people are employed permanently in this sector and that 47,000 of these people are unpaid family workers. Agricultural employees are primarily of Omani descent. Oman is famed for producing very high quality agricultural goods and the highest quality products are usually exported to the neighboring Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries. (On 26 May 1981 an agreement was signed between the 6 conservative monarchies of the Gulf: Saudi Arabia, Bahrain. United Arab Emirates. Kuwait. Oman, and Qatar to coordinate their economic, political, cultural, and security policy.) However, the agricultural farm is threatened by many problems, including outdated technology and an increase in the salinity of the water. The government has responded to these issues by investing more into the sector. Its goal is to obtain self-sufficiency in food production by improving agricultural conditions. In working to make the agricultural sector internationally competitive, the government has introduced incentives for foreign investors. These exemptions include tax reductions, utilities discounts, loans, and tariff protection. The government has also helped Omani firms in exporting their products. With 2,092 kilometers (1,297 miles) of coastline running from the mouth of the Gulf in the north to the border with Yemen in the south, Oman has very rich fishing potential which has yet to be fully developed. There is a 200-mile exclusive economic zone which extends from Oman out to sea and over 150 species of fish and crustaceans have been identified in Omani waters ranging from tuna and crayfish to lobster and shrimp. Large amounts of lobsters are caught off the Masirah islands and off the coast of Dhofar, and they are exported to Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates where they are in great demand. In 1998, approximately 26,940 Omanis were employed in the fishing industry and a total of 116,780 tons of fish were caught. The number of fish caught per annum has been slowly declining over the past 20 years due to pollution and the depletion of fish stocks. In response to this, the Omani government has put restrictions on the amount of fish catches. Lobster may now be harvested only twice a year. The annual fish catch remains at over 100,000 tons per year, and efforts to produce value-added . manufactured fish products are underway. Processing and packaging for export are key concerns, as is the use of better technology at sea. IRRIGATION. Omans position in a semi-arid climatic zone results in the serious problem of water scarcity. The government has been pursuing programs of improved water efficiency and water resource development and some far-reaching legislation has been passed through the government. In 1999 there were 48 dams all over the country that collect rainwater as well as a major project underway to decrease water consumption through the use of water-saving devices on taps. The government has also initiated a plan for the supply of water to Muscat up until 2010 that involves extending the existing pipelines. Two additional reservoirs have been built around Muscat at a cost of US3 million. Similar to many of the Gulf countries, the Omani industrial sector makes up a large proportion of GDP, accounting for 40 percent of it in 1999. However, Oman is not a typical Persian Gulf oil producer due to its small, scattered oil fields and, as a result, production costs are much higher per barrel than those in other GCC countries. The average Omani oil field produces one-tenth the volume per well that Saudi Arabia or Iran produce. Oil was not discovered in commercial amounts until 1962, much later than most oil-producing Gulf states. Oman is not a member of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). (OPEC is an international organization of 11 developing countries which are heavily reliant on oil revenues as their main source of income. The current members are Algeria. Indonesia. Iran, Iraq. Kuwait, Libya. Nigeria. Qatar, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, and Venezuela .) However, in the past Oman has cut production in co-operation with OPEC in an attempt to raise prices. Omans oil production has wavered between 910,000 barrels a day (bd) and 890,000 bd since April 1999. The Omani government has announced a new 5-year plan which is to run from 2001 to 2005 and which aims to increase production to 1 million bd. The bulk of Omans 5.28 billion barrels in proven reserves is situated in the north and in the center of the country. In the north the largest fields are Yibal, Natih, Fahud, al-Huwaisah, and Lekhwair. The largest field is Yibal, producing 180,000 bd and, together, these fields produce half of the total Omani oil production. The crude oil produced in the north is mainly light or medium crude and is found alongside natural gas. The oil fields further south tend to produce heavier crude and are usually not associated with natural gas. With oil reserves amounting to 5.28 billion barrels, Oman has a further 17-year supply of oil if it continues to produce at 910,000 bd. Since the discovery of oil, the oil and gas industry has been the catalyst of growth for the Omani economy, contributing approximately 37 percent to GDP each year and as much as 55 percent of GDP up until the early 1980s. In addition, oil provides 75.3 percent of state revenues. The oil industry is largely run by Petroleum Development Oman (PDO) which has a government majority ownership. PDO controls 90 percent of the countrys output. Shell owns 34 percent of the company and operates the majority of Omans large fields. In 1999, Oman exported 95.8 million barrels of oil to Japan, 65.6 million barrels to Thailand. 55.9 million barrels to South Korea, and 39.4 million barrels to China. The gas sector in Oman is considered to be the cornerstone of the governments economic growth strategy and great efforts have been made to turn natural gas into a thriving export industry. There are abundant gas reserves in Oman and 1999 estimates put the proven reserves at 29.28 trillion cubic feet (tcf). The government has projected that by the year 2002 natural gas will contribute 15 percent of GDP. Most of the gas reserves are located in areas that are controlled by PDO. Oman has entered into a number of projects with overseas companies such as Gulfstream resources of Canada and Neste Oy of Finland to develop, explore, and produce natural gas in the northern part of the country. MANUFACTURING. Following the discovery of large gas deposits, attention moved away from the manufacturing industry and in 1999, manufacturing contributed 5 percent to GDP. Most of the countrys industrial enterprises are involved in light industry. Existing companies manufacture soft drinks, textiles, perfume, and cement. The sector grew by 3 percent between 1994 and 1998, but it relies heavily on skilled expatriate labor and therefore does not contribute much to the creation of local jobs. Evidence of Omans rich cultural and architectural heritage can be seen in its hundreds of historic sites and its many beautiful beaches. The countrys varied geography and range of climatic conditions give it enormous potential in the tourism industry, a sector which is still very undeveloped. Given Omans current unemployment problem, combined with the thousands of young Omanis entering the workforce every year, the expansion of the tourism sector could create much-needed jobs. The government initiated a 15-year tourism plan in 1990, easing visa restrictions in order to open up the country to more tourists, and very quickly the number of visitors rose from 290,000 in 1994 to 503,000 in 1999. In 2000, tourism represented less than 1 percent of GDP even though there was an 11 percent increase in the number of visitors between 1988 and 1992. In 1994 there were only 37 hotels in Oman and in 2000 there were 89. The government has made an attempt to attract visitors from the Gulf region, signing an agreement with Dubai whereby nationals of both countries can easily obtain visas. However, the governments plan is to attract affluent European visitors to the country who are happy to take supervised coach tours instead of exploring the country on their own. Government concerns about local sensitivities as well as the continuing high tax on alcohol serve as major constraints to the growth of this potentially lucrative industry. FINANCIAL SERVICES. The Omani government has made serious attempts to ensure the stability of the banking sector and in 2000 there were 16 commercial banks in the country, of which 9 were branches of foreign banks. In addition to the commercial banks, the government has set up 2 credit institutions that provide small loans for Omani citizens. The Omani Housing Bank provides loans to finance the construction of homes and the Oman Development Bank provides general microcredit . The Central Bank of Oman places restrictions on the amount of foreign exchange that banks are allowed to lend and invest and in addition sets the total amount of capital to be held by local banks at US26 million and by foreign banks at US9 million. Omans stock exchange was established in 1989 and is called the Muscat Securities Market (MSM). There are over 100 banks and companies listed on the exchange with a current capitalization of over US2 billion. In 1999 Oman was included in the International Finance Corporations emerging market index and the government has made concerted efforts to make the stock market more transparent and more regulated. Electronic trading was introduced in 1999 as well as a regulatory agency called the Capital Markets Authority (CMA). INTERNATIONAL TRADE In 1999, Omans exports amounted to US7.2 billion and its imports were valued at US5.4 billion. The countrys principal export is oil and in 1999 the commodity accounted for 76 percent of all exports. In the 1980s, however, oil accounted for over 90 percent but its share has declined due to the falling price of crude oil. The second major export in Oman is re-exports which totaled US1.3 billion in 1999. Given that the Omani economy is not very diversified, the smallest proportion of exports is non-oil exports such as foodstuffs and animal products. These accounted for 35 percent of total non-oil Omani exports in 1999. In 1999 the principle importer of Omani crude oil was Japan. Japan imported a total of 95.8 million barrels followed by Thailand, which imported 65.6 million barrels. Oman has slowly increased its production of crude oil and as a result the country has enjoyed trade surpluses throughout the last decade even though it has increased its imports. Nevertheless, the size of these surpluses varies considerably from year to year due to the world prices of crude oil. When Iraq invaded Kuwait in 1990 the price of oil increased substantially and that year Omans trade surplus amounted to US2.9 billion. However, when world oil prices fell drastically in 1998, Omans surplus fell to just US291 million. In 1993 the Trade (expressed in billions of US): Oman SOURCE: International Monetary Fund. International Financial Statistics Yearbook 1999. surplus stood at US1.3 billion and in 1996 the rise in the price of crude oil pushed it up to US3 billion. Over the past 30 years, Oman has come to rely more and more on imports because it has a very small industrial sector and an agricultural sector that is unable to meet the demand for the variety and quantity of food that the middle-and upper-class Omanis desire. Imports of food amounted to 14 percent of the total value of imports in 1999. The bulk of imports come from the United Arab Emirates and Japan, representing 26.3 percent and 15.8 percent of all imports, respectively. Major Omani imports include food and live animals, beverages and tobacco, crude materials, and minerals. In 1999, Omans imports totaled US4.67 billion. Omans main trading partners are Japan, China, Thailand, South Korea, the United Arab Emirates, and the United States. In October 2000 the General Council of the World Trade Organization approved Omani membership and in November Oman became the 139th member. Prior to its accession, Oman had to make several changes in order to conform to WTOs membership rules. Not only did the authorities have to agree upon a custom duty ceiling, allow foreign firms with under 70 percent foreign ownership to be taxed the same rates as Omani firms, but also it had to establish intellectual property rights. The consequence of this new membership will open up the Omani markets further and expose local companies to increased competition. By 2003, Oman is required to allow fully foreign-owned computer companies, banks, and insurance companies to operate within the country. Due to the small size of the Omani economy, the countrys monetary policy is quite straightforward. The goal of the Omani Central Bank is to maintain a stable riyal so that the economy can function competitively abroad. The riyal has been pegged to the dollar since 1973. In 1986 the riyal was devalued by 10.2 percent and since then it has been stable at about US2.60 to 1 riyal. Exchange rates: Oman All the money flowing into the economy is regulated by the Central Bank of Oman. The central bank also regulates the commercial banks through a variety of measures. POVERTY AND WEALTH In 1970 Oman initiated a comprehensive sustainable development program and it was among one of the first developing countries to place a real emphasis on the social sector. The program was called Oman 2020 and, since its inception, it has achieved some of the fastest-ever recorded growth in the history of human development. In 1970 there was no formal education system in place apart from 3 primary schools in Muscat that had a maximum capacity of 900 boys. By the end of 1994, 920 schools had opened all over the country and approximately 450,000 students were enrolled in formal education of whom about 50 percent were girls. In 1999, 70 percent of all Omani children attended primary school. In addition to the improvements in education, there have been far-reaching improvements in life expectancy and infant mortality. Life expectancy has increased by 24 years from 47 in 1970 to 71 in 1997, and infant mortality has been reduced 10 times over from more than 215 per 1,000 live births to less than 18 in 1997. Before the development program began, there were many health problems that were prevalent in Oman due to the poverty and the lack of education. One of the most serious diseases that afflicted more than half of all Omani school children was trachoma, a disease that leads to blindness. This disease is spread through the bite of a blackfly, which breeds in fast-flowing rivers and streams. When the fly bites, it deposits the larvae of a parasitic worm which moves rapidly through the body, causing severe eyesight damage and possible blindness when it enters the eyes. This disease has now been totally wiped out. Additional gains in social and health conditions have led to improvements in the sanitation system almost three-quarters of all houses have clean running water and toilets that flush. The vast majority of homes have electric light, electricity, and gas with which to cook. The government provides pensions for the elderly and the disabled as well as widows, orphans, GDP per Capita (US) SOURCE: World Bank. World Development Indicators 2000. and divorced women. This massive investment in human capital was made possible by the revenues that the state collected from the oil industry. Without this income it is unlikely that Oman would have made such ground-breaking progress in achieving better standards of living for a large part of its population. Although Oman serves as a good example for other less-developed countries, there is still much room for improvement due to the high income inequality. The female literacy rate is still less than half that of the male literacy rate, and the total fertility rate (the number of children the average woman will have in her lifetime) is 6.9, one of the highest in the world. WORKING CONDITIONS Oman is heavily dependent on expatriate labor with an expatriate community of 527,078 and a total labor force of 650,000. Expatriate workers send large amounts of their wages back home, and in 1997 these earnings amounted to US1.5 billion or 9.5 percent of GDP. Foreign labor mostly comes from India. Bangladesh. Pakistan. and Sri Lanka. and in most cases these expatriates perform menial and physical jobs. In some cases they have managerial jobs. There are an estimated 30,000 young Omanis entering the workforce every year, and the government has realized that it can no longer provide jobs for the entire workforce. To this end, it has been pursuing a policy of Omanization whereby expatriate labor is slowly replaced by Omani labor. Foreigners are not allowed to work in agriculture or public relations, nor are they allowed to be Arabic typists, guards, or technical assistants unless the employer can show that no Omanis are capable of filling the position. Taxi drivers and fishermen must be Omani. In 1994 Oman joined the International Labor Organization (ILO). (This is a UN agency that seeks the promotion of social justice and human and labor rights.) As a consequence, Oman must follow international standards covering a wide range of issues in the world of work, including certain basic human rights, the abolition of forced labor, the elimination of discrimination in employment, the employment of women, and the employment of children. Omans labor code lays out basic workers rights and in 1998 the minimum wage was raised by the government and set at US260 (100 riyals) per month plus US52 (20 riyals) for transport costs and housing costs. However, the minimum wage does not apply to all occupations such as small businesses that employ fewer than 5 people, domestic servants, dependent family members working in a family business, and some manual labor jobs. The government has been reluctant to enforce the minimum wage for foreign workers employed in menial jobs. In contrast, the foreign workers who are highly skilled and in managerial positions are often paid much more than their Omani counterparts. The working week is 5 days in the public sector and 5 and a half days in the private sector. Non-Omanis working in construction, retail . in the personal service outlets, or in the petroleum fields usually work a 7-day week. Foreign men and women employed in manual labor or as domestic servants have made official complaints in the past about employers withholding salaries and inhumane treatment. In many cases the government has been unhelpful or undertaken investigative procedures that have been detrimental to the employee concerned, which clearly goes directly against the principles of the International Labor Organization. Employers who mistreat their foreign domestic servants are not always held accountable for their actions and several foreign women working in Oman have been forced to contact their governments embassies to seek shelter and escape from abuse. COUNTRY HISTORY AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT 1921. Treaty of Sib is signed, which marks the British takeover of the government of Oman. A council of Ministers governs with British advisers and the British take control of customs revenue. Also during this time, new Western strategic interests develop in Oman in the form of air routes and oil prospecting. 1951. British recognize Oman as an independent state. 1962. Oil is discovered. 1967. Oil production starts. 1970. Sultan Said is overthrown by his own son, Qa-boos Bin Said, in a palace coup. Sultan Qaboos liberalizes the political system, and starts many development projects. Oman is plagued by civil war. 1980. Military agreement signed with the United States which reflects the Western strategic interest in Oman for the planning of rapid deployment force capabilities to secure Western access to gulf oil. 1981. Oman forms the Gulf Cooperation. This agreement is signed between the 6 conservative monarchies of the Gulf: Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, United Arab Emi-rates, Kuwait, Oman, and Qatar to coordinate their economic, political, cultural, and security policy. 1991. Sultan Qaboos expands and restructures Omans consultative council. 1994. Oman joins the International Labor Organization (ILO). 1999. Oman is included in the International Finance Corporations emerging market index. Electronic trading is introduced. 2000. Oman becomes a member of the World Trade Organization. FUTURE TRENDS Oman looks to the future with both pessimism and optimism. The pessimism comes from the certainty that the countrys major source of revenue x2014 oil x2014 will run out before the year 2020. Oil accounted for the great majority of Omans exports and GDP ever since it was discovered in the early 1960s. The oil boom had a widespread impact on the economy: it allowed Oman to provide jobs for many of its people in the public sector, it allowed the country to import labor to perform the least wanted jobs in the economy, and it allowed Oman to avoid developing other industries. With the coming decline of the oil economy, Oman must seek alternative means for economic development. Fortunately, Omans government has taken a number of steps to ease the country into new economic patterns. The government plans to develop the production of its natural gas and other non-oil energy-based industries. Its 4 previous 5-year plans have been successful and the current 5-year plan focuses on the private sector as the catalyst for non-petroleum economic growth. The government is moving ahead with privatization of its utilities, the development of a body of commercial law to facilitate foreign investment, and increased budgetary outlays. However, Oman will have to continue to liberalize its markets in conjunction with its accession to the World Trade Organization (WTO). Managing the transition from an oil-based to a more diversified economy will not be easy. Even though Oman has a reputation for stability and cooperation, the countrys future success is likely to depend on the wisdom and political will of the countrys leaders. DEPENDENCIES Oman has no territories or colonies. BIBLIOGRAPHY Chatty, Dawn. Mobile Pastoralists: Development Planning and Social Change in Oman. New York. Columbia University Press, 1996. Economist Intelligence Unit. Country Profile: Oman, 2000. London: Economist Intelligence Unit, 2000. International Monetary Fund. International Financial Statistics Yearbook 1999. Washington, D. C. International Monetary Fund, 1999. Skeet, Ian. Oman: Politics and Development. London: Macmillan, 1992. World Bank. World Development Report 20002001: Attacking Poverty. ltworldbank. orgpovertywdrpovertyreportindex. htmgt. Accessed February 2001. x2014 Salamander Davoudi MONETARY UNIT: Omani riyal (OR). One OR equals 1,000 baiza. Coins are in denominations of 500, 250, 200, 100, 50, 25, 10, and 5 baiza. Paper currency comes in denominations of OR50, 20, 10, 5, and 1, as well as 500, 250, 200, and 100 baiza. CHIEF EXPORTS: Petroleum, re-exports, fish, metals, and textiles. CHIEF IMPORTS: Machinery and transport equipment, manufactured goods, food, livestock, and lubricants. GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT: US19.6 billion (purchasing power parity, 1999 est.). BALANCE OF TRADE: Exports: US7.63 billion (f. o.b. 1997 est.). Imports: US5.682 billion (f. o.b. 1997 est.). Major City: Muscat Other Cities: Matrah, Sal x101 lah EDITORS NOTE This chapter was adapted from the Department of State Post Report dated July 1994. Supplemental material has been added to increase coverage of minor cities, facts have been updated, and some material has been condensed. Readers are encouraged to visit the Department of States web site at travel. state. gov for the most recent information available on travel to this country. INTRODUCTION OMAN . known as Muscat and Oman before 1970, was once the most powerful of all the Arabian states. At the beginning of the 19th century, it controlled Zanzibar and much of the coast of Persia and Baluchistan, and it was only in 1958 that the last of its vast holdings, the town of Gwadar, was ceded to Pakistan. It does, however, maintain control of the Strait of Hormuz, through which flows much of the oil for the West. The early history of Oman is obscure, but it is known that it was one of the first countries converted to Islam by Amir ibn al-As in the seventh century, during the lifetime of Mohammed (or Muhammad). In 1508, the Portuguese conquered parts of Omans coastal region, and that countrys influence dominated the sultanate for more than a century (with a short interruption of Turkish seizure). Oman today is an absolute monarchy, which has survived periods of insurgency and tribal revolt, and which is intent on developing its economy and upgrading its social and educational standards. It maintains close relations with Great Britain. and is a reliable ally of the United States . MAJOR CITY The Muscat (Masqat) capitalcommercial area (including the cities of Ruwi and Qurum), with an estimated population of 635,000, consists of a series of towns and neighborhoods strung along the Gulf of Oman for more than 50 miles. Only one of these is old Muscat, the original seat of government and still the site of one of the sultans palaces. Old Muscat lies between the sea and stark, brown cliffs that rise to a height of 1,500 feet. The harbor is dominated by Forts Mirani and Jalali, built by the Portuguese in the 15th and 16th centuries. The winding streets and the wall surrounding the old city have retained much of their medieval style and flavor. About three miles from Muscat is Omans retail commercial center, the city of Matrah. It is also the site of the countrys major seaport, Port Mina Qaboos. Just beyond Matrah is Ruwi Valley. Because of Muscats limited land area, most government ministries and commercial enterprises have established themselves here. This section also has become the site of much residential construction. The expansion of the capital area in recent years has brought rapid development to places beyond Ruwi as well. The suburbs of Qurum and Madinat Qaboos are becoming important residential areas. Many ministries are located in the latter. Despite new road construction and the opening of a limited-access highway from Qurum to Matrah, congestion is a problem in the capital area and, during peak hours, traffic often slows or comes to a halt. Numerous grocery stores in Oman offer a reasonably wide range of products, although seasonal variations and occasional shortages occur. Quality and freshness are generally below U. S. standards food is relatively expensive. Cotton summer clothing can be worn throughout the year. However, blends of cotton and polyester retain heat, and are comfortable only in the cooler season. One or two outfits for occasional cool winter evenings are recommended. Although more items are becoming available locally, do not expect to buy needed clothing here, especially shoes. Some Americans have been successful in locating local tailors, but get recommendations before trying one. Westerners find that lightweight slacks with shirt and tie (skirts and blouses for women), or single-knit safari suits are appropriate for office wear. Lightweight suits are needed for some business events or evening wear. Women wear caftans, street-length cotton skirts, dresses, or dressy slacks to social functions in the evenings. The caftans and skirts are also recommended for souk shopping or beach cover-up, and simple cotton versions may be purchased locally at reasonable prices. Only a limited supply of appropriate foot-wear is available. Childrens clothing, particularly shoes and swimwear, is in extremely short supply. Omani men commonly wear a long straight robe called a dishdasha . usually white but sometimes pastel. For ceremonial occasions, the dishdasha is worn with a decorated belt adorned in front with a large, curved knife in an ornate, silver sheath called a khanjar . Affluent Omanis wear the dishdasha with a gold-trimmed black robe called a bisht . The head covering is either a small, embroidered cap or a loosely wound turban ( musarr or emama ). The women of Oman generally wear brightly patterned blouses and pantaloons, covered by long, head-to-toe black capes. Some of them wear the traditional face veil, but most use no face covering. A face mask, common to women of the Batinah coast, is rarely seen in the capital area. Jewelry, usually silver, is worn in profusion. A few Omani social customs involving dress include swimwear being worn only at hotel pools women should wear skirts of reasonable length and avoid shorts, sundresses, and sleeveless outfits and men should wear slacks and shirt to work and in public, never shorts or shirtless. Supplies amp Services Most toiletries, cosmetics, nonprescription drugs, and household and entertainment items are available. However, specific brand names may not be available. Several womens hair stylists and a few barbers are satisfactory. One or two dry cleaners do acceptable work, but shoe repair facilities are limited. The cost of services generally compares to, or exceeds, U. S. prices. The American British Academy, founded in 1987, is a coeducational day school sponsored by the American Embassy. Grades are from pre-kindergarten to grade 12. The curriculum is designed to meet the needs of both British and American academic programs. The school offers the International Baccalaureate program, which is recognized in many countries for university entrance. Several private English-speaking nursery schools accept children from three years of age. Space is limited and the schools usually have waiting lists, but most parents have been able to place their children in a satisfactory school. Recreation With the exception of outings sponsored by the Historical Association, few organized touring and sight-seeing activities are available in Oman. However, the countrys interesting archaeological, historical, scenic, and cultural sights appeal to photographers and artists. Many towns have fortresses in excellent condition. Interesting sights within a days drive of Muscat include the ancient capitals of Rustaq, Nizwa, and Sohar. Colorful Arab bazaars, called souks . are found in all but the smallest villages. Four first-class local hotels have swimming pool facilities open to nonresidents for a yearly fee. Among other facilities offered at the hotels are lighted tennis courts and air-conditioned squash courts. One hotel has a bowling alley, another has six some have a sports club with an equipped gym and a sauna. Soccer and field hockey are the only organized sports which Omanis regularly play. The most popular form of recreation is water sports. Swimming, snorkeling, water-skiing, windsurfing, and skin diving are available. Collectors are rewarded with an abundance of beautiful sea shells. Many beaches lie along the coast, and others are accessible by boat. Oman offers both deep-sea and surf fishing. The sea abounds in a wide variety of fish, both large and small. Camping and hiking are also popular the hot weather eliminates the need for tents, particularly if mosquito netting is used. Entertainment Europeans and Americans frequent restaurants at the airport and at the large hotels. There also are numerous Indian restaurants as well as two Chinese, an Italian, a French, and a few Arab restaurants where Westerners meet. The hotels often provide entertainment and music for dancing. Local movie theaters feature Indian films. Omani television has one or two English programs a week, and occasionally presents an English film. The American Womens Club meets monthly, offering a wide range of social activities to its members. An amateur drama group occasionally produces plays, and the Muscat Singers give concerts. For the American and European community in Muscat, the main social activity informal dinners or gatherings, primarily with other members of the non-Omani community, as well as taking advantage of the specials frequently offered at the major hotels. Omanis attend both formal and informal gatherings, but most Omani men are not accompanied by their wives. The Department of Tourism is part of the Ministry of Commerce and Industry. The mailing address is P. O. Box 550, Muscat, Oman. OTHER CITIES MATRAH (also spelled Mutrah and Muttrah), just west of Muscat on the Gulf of Oman, is the countrys principal port and commercial center. There is an important fish market in the city, and shipbuilding is significant. Caravans to the interior begin here, carrying commodities such as fruits and fish. Omans oil terminal is located three miles outside of town the city opened its modern port facilities in the late 1970s. The population is more than 129,000. SAL x100 LAH is the trading hub of the Dhofar area in the south, about 80 miles east of the border with the Republic of Yemen. The explorer Marco Polo (1254-1324) depicted Sal x101 lah as a prosperous city in the 13th century. It had been renowned since ancient times for its frankincense. The sultan of Oman took over the vicinity in the 1800s. Government construction has included a hotel and a hospital. A paved road links the city to the north there also is an international airport, completed in 1978. The population in Sal x101 lah is approximately 10,000. COUNTRY PROFILE Geography and Climate Oman occupies the southeastern corner of the Arabian Peninsula. It is bordered on the north by the United Arab Emirates. on the northwest by Saudi Arabia. on the southwest by the Republic of Yemen, and on the southeast by the Gulf of Oman. With an area of slightly more than 100,000 square miles, it is about the size of Colorado . Oman has three distinct topographical features. The first consists of two flat, relatively fertile coastal strips up to 20 miles wide x2014 one in the north stretching from Muscat to the border with the U. A.E. (United Arab Emirates), and one surrounding the southern coastal town of Sal x101 lah. The second feature includes two mountainous regions x2014 one in the north, with elevations ranging from several hundred feet to the craggy peaks of Jebel Akhdar at 10,000 feet, and the other bordering the Sal x101 lah plain in the south. Both are deeply scarred throughout with dry stream beds called wadis . The third feature is sandy wasteland, mainly in the RubAl Khali (the Empty Quarter) along the border with Saudi Arabia this area is almost devoid of inhabitants. Omans climate is one of the hottest in the world. Temperatures reach 130 xB0 F in summer months, from April to September, and rarely drop below 65 xB0 F in the cooler season, from October to March. Rainfall averages only four or five inches annually, and occurs from December to March or April. Nevertheless, humidity averages 65 to 80. Summer monsoons create a more tropical climate in the south. Population Omans population numbers over two million, of whom 1.6 million are Omanis. Omanis are a people of two dominant ethnic stocks x2014 the Qahtan, immigrants from southern Arabia. and the Nizar, from the north. Its long history of trading, and its former colonies on the coasts of Africa and the Indian subcontinent have produced a population of extraordinary range and diversity. Arabs predominate, but communities from India and Pakistan also inhabit Oman. Arabic is the official and most widely spoken language, but Hindi. Urdu, Swahili, and local dialects are also used. English is spoken by many officials in the Omani Government and by the majority of merchants dealing with the expatriate community. Most Omanis are Ibadhi or Sunni Muslims, and there is a small but influential Shia minority. There is also a small Hindu population. More than 50 of the population is engaged in fishing or subsistence farming. Literacy is about 35. Omanis are reserved, but friendly. They have a strong sense of hospitality and often share coffee, tea, dates, or halwa (a sweet, honey-colored dessert) with guests. Although many Omanis observe prohibitions against alcohol and tobacco, they are seldom offended by their offer. Most abstain from eating pork. A number of social customs are observed in Oman including using only the right hand when eating, never asking questions concerning anothers family members, always dressing in modest attire, and never allowing the sole of the foot to be exposed towards a host. It is polite to accept the refreshments offered to visitors, which is a national custom. Government The Sultan of Oman, Qaboos bin Said, is an absolute monarch who rules with the aid of his ministers. The sultanate has no constitution, legislature, or legal political parties, although an appointed Consultative Council was formed in October 1981, and in 1991 he replaced that body with one whose members were nominated by traditional leaders from each district of the country. Except for decrees from the sultan and recently established police and commercial courts, the legal system is based almost exclusively on the Shariah (The Koranic laws and oral teaching of Muhammad). Jurisdiction is exercised by qadis (men versed in the religious code). Petty courts have been established to deal with minor matters such as traffic offenses. In less populated areas and among the Bedouin, tribal custom often is the only law, although a system of primary courts is making inroads into the interior. In 1987, a flying court service was initiated to serve these isolated areas. For administrative purposes, the country is divided into wilayats (districts). These are presided over by walis (governors), appointed by the minister of the interior, who oversees all administrative tasks in the area and provides the main link between the people and the central government. Oman is one of the Gulf regions most stable countries and Sultan Qaboos has proven an able and popular monarch. While maintaining a low profile during the Persian Gulf War, the country allowed Western military organizations use of its air bases. Oman became a member of the United Nations in 1971. The country is also a member of the Arab League, Gulf Cooperation Council, World Health Organization (WHO), United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), and several other international bodies. The flag of the Sultanate of Oman is red, white, and green. The vertical red band on the staff is embossed with a white emblem consisting of a sheathed dagger superimposed on crossed swords, and the rest of the flag has horizontal bands of white and green divided by a red stripe. Arts, Science, Education The Omanis have long been renowned for their craftsmanship in everything from silver-and goldsmithing to boatbuilding. Oman is perhaps most famous for its national symbol, the khanjar x2014 an ornate, curved dagger embossed in silver and still worn in the interior and on special occasions. Other handicrafts include weaving, pottery, and boat-building, with the famous Omani dhows still being handmade in Sur. Traditional art forms such as singing and dancing are seen mostly in the interior. Western culture has made inroads, mostly in the capital area, but Islamic and Omani culture and customs still prevail. Oman has greatly stressed the importance of scientific and technical advance, especially since the accession of Sultan Qaboos in 1970. In 1986, Sultan Qaboos University opened its doors to both men and women students. There are five colleges within the university: Education and Islamic Sciences, Agriculture, Engineering, Science and Medicine, and Arts. It boasts modern facilities and a highly qualified staff, including American and European professors. Many Omanis also go abroad each year to further their education, often to the U. K. or U. S. Education is not compulsory. Students may start primary school at six years of age and finish at age 12. Six years of secondary education follows. Less than 25 years ago, Oman had 16 primary and no secondary schools. By 1998, there were 411 primary schools with about 313,000 students. Teachers are primarily Egyptian, Jordanian, and Sudanese. Commerce and Industry Although Oman is a relatively small oil producer at 850,000 barrels of crude per day, oil revenues account for 90 of the nations total export revenues, and 77 of total government revenues (2000 est.). Oman was the last of the Arab Gulf states to become a major producer of oil for export it is also not a member of Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), but has complied with OPEC policies. However, analysts have predicted that Omans oil reserves will last for only about 18 years. With this in mind, the government hopes to diversify its economy by developing natural gas sales. Since the accession of Sultan Qaboos in 1970, Oman has concentrated on development of an infrastructure. The country now has an excellent highway system, modern airports at Seeb and Sal x101 lah, and deep-water ports at Mina Qaboos and Raysut. Large industrial projects underway include a copper mining and smelting operation, an oil refinery, and cement plants. An industrial zone at Rusail will be the showcase for a variety of new light industries. At the same time, the government is seeking to develop the agriculture and fisheries sectors, from which about 60 of the Omani population still derive their livelihood. Omans prosperity was originally concentrated in the area surrounding Muscat, but an increasing number of government services are available to the inhabitants of the interior. Virtually everything in the Omani economy is imported. The U. S. trade relationship is minor. The United Kingdom and the United Arab Emirates are Omans most important import sources major export destinations are Japan and South Korea. Like other countries in the region, Oman relies on imported labor to carry out its development plans. The expatriate work force is estimated at over 400,000. The majority of foreign nationals in Oman work in construction, trade, or agriculture and the majority of expatriates are Indian or Pakistan nationals. The government has made a substantial investment in education and as a result Omanis are now employed in occupations once held only by expatriates. In recent years, the government has attempted to diversify the economy and to emphasize private industry. Because of its limited population (and therefore a small market for goods), the intent is for industry to provide materials for export. A number of incentives have been provided by the government and foreign investment is being encouraged. While there continue to be large numbers of British and subcontinental technical advisers and managers, some Americans are finding positions in both the government and the private sector. The Ministry of Commerce and Industry can be reached at P. O. Box 550, Muscat the Chamber of Commerce and Industry, at P. O. Box 4400, Ruwi, Muscat. Transportation Omans major general-cargo port is the 1.5-million-ton capacity Port Mina Qaboos, located in Matrah. Although Oman does not receive direct service from American shipping lines, it does receive regularly scheduled foreign-flag service from the U. S. east coast. Port Mina Qaboos has far less congestion than other ports in the Gulf. Seeb International Airport is served by 18 international carriers. British Airways, Kuwait Airways, UTA, Pakistan International, Air India, Saudia, Gulf Air, MEA, KLM, Air Lanka, Thai International, Sudan Airways, Biman Bangladesh, Air Tanzania, Egyptair, Kenya Airways, Royal Jordanian, and TWA provide service to many major cities. British Airways and Gulf Air provide direct flights to London. The other carriers connect Muscat with Africa, Asia. and major Middle East cities. Connecting service is available from New York and Washington, DC on Gulf Air and TWA. An international airport also is located at Sal x101 lah. Gulf Air and Oman Aviation operate daily domestic routes to serve other towns in the country. Permission to fly to Sal x101 lah must be obtained from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Bus service is available for the 25-mile trip from Muscat to Seeb Airport, and to Sohar, Nizwa, Rustaq, and several other towns in the interior. The bus trip from Muscat to Sal x101 lah takes about 12 hours. There are taxis at the airport and at the larger hotels in Muscat. Finding an unengaged taxi at other locations in the city can be difficult. Fares are generally high there are no meters so fares should be negotiated in advance. Most taxi drivers do not speak English. Omanis and third-country workers reduce the cost by sharing taxis with other riders. Local bus service is available, but public transportation routes operate only along major thoroughfares and none go into the area where most Americans and Europeans live. Fares are based on distance traveled. Women seldom use local buses. Visitors should not use the bus system. Cars may be rented by the day or week. Both an international and valid national drivers license are necessary. Private cars provide the only practical and dependable means of transportation within the country. Because the city is spread out over a large area and public transportation is inadequate, a car is a necessity. Air conditioning is a necessity. Omans more than 3,000 miles of paved roads include four roads from the capital area to the U. A.E. (United Arab Emirates) border, and others to Nizwa, Ibra, Rustaq, Sal x101 lah, Sur, and other interior towns. An additional 750 miles of graded roads may be traveled by standard passenger cars, but all other roads and trails require four-wheel-drive or high-wheel-base vehicles. Driving is on the right. Right-hand-drive vehicles are not allowed to be registered. There is no railway system here. Communications International telephone and telegraph facilities are available, although delays occur. International direct dialing is available. The local telephone system is quite good. Depending on the area, new subscribers may wait up to three months for telephone installation. Telex service is available at major hotels and at the Public Telex Office in Ruwi. Fax is widely used in place of mail service. International airmail is generally reliable, and arrives in five to eight days from the U. S. However, newspapers and magazines are subject to censorship x2014 mainly to restrict entry of pornography and items considered politically offensive x2014 and may take considerably longer for delivery. The local FM radio station broadcasts in English from 7 a. m. to 10 p. m. Standard broadcast-band reception is limited mostly to nearby Arab countries broadcasting in Arabic, but also includes about six hours a day in English from the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) in London, relayed from Masirah Island in the Arabian Sea, off the coast of Oman. A shortwave receiver is the only way of ensuring regular Voice of America (VOA) or other English-language reception. A wide range of receivers may be bought locally. Television programs, most of them in color, are aired from 3:00 p. m. to about 11 p. m. but often run beyond midnight. Most programming is in Arabic, although a few American TV programs and one movie with Arabic subtitles are shown weekly on an irregular basis. A 15-minute English-language news program airs daily at 8 p. m. English-language periodicals that are regularly available a few days after publication are Time, Newsweek, The Economist, Events . and Middle East International . London daily newspapers, such as the Express and the Times . are available in Oman about three to four days after publication. The International Herald Tribune arrives between one and three days after publication. The Oman Daily Observer and the weekly Times of Oman (both in English) can be bought at newsstands. Also available is the daily Khaleej Times from the U. A.E. Health and Medicine Most resident Americans in Muscat use Al Khoula Hospital (surgicalmaternity) or Al Nahdha Hospital (medical) for emergencies or for simple treatment. Those with serious ailments usually go for treatment in Europe. The Royal Hospital has recently opened and is available for obstetricalmaternity care, as well as other types of treatments. There are several private clinics (one staffed with Swedish physicians, a second with British) that resident Americans also use for medical care. For minor problems or treatment, Oman has several qualified physicians with advanced training in the U. S. or in the United Kingdom. These doctors, however, have long hours and a heavy work load in the Omani Government hospitals, and are not always available. Some local medical facilities that have modern equipment often lack qualified personnel. Hygiene, in many cases, is inadequate. Omans dental facilities generally fall below U. S. standards. However, Oman has two qualified dental facilities: a French facility that provides routine care and a British facility that provides care comparable to U. S. standards. Orthodontic care and oral surgery are available. Omans sanitation level is low by American standards. Incidence of bacillary dysentery, infectious hepatitis, and intestinal worms exists, although the frequency has diminished sharply in recent years, especially in the capital area. Malaria exists there is a 5 chance of contracting malaria in the capital area 20 in other areas of Oman. Many Omanis also suffer from poliomyelitis, meningococcal infection, trachoma and tuberculosis. Dust conditions aggravate respiratory ailments. Typhoid is still common. Oman has no municipal sewage system, and the roughly constructed septic tanks are a constant threat of contamination to the water supply. Garbage is collected regularly from open cubicles in various locations throughout Muscat. Flies are somewhat controlled by periodic spraying. Mosquitoes and other insects, especially cockroaches, are common, as are rats in some areas. Americans are strongly advised to maintain inoculation schedules for typhoid, tetanus, and poliomyelitis prevention. Gamma globulin also is recommended. Malaria suppressants (Chloroquine) should be started two weeks before arrival, and continued for the duration of the stay and for four weeks after departure, and ending with a final two week course of Primaquine. Drinking water should be filtered and boiled, and uncooked vegetables and fruits soaked in water containing bleach or Milton (available locally). Close supervision of domestics hygiene and kitchen routines is necessary. Sanitation standards at the leading restaurants catering to expatriates, and in the restaurants of major hotels, appear to be adequate. Most drugs are available locally, but often not the American equivalent. A six-month supply of regularly prescribed medication is advised for long-term visitors. NOTES FOR TRAVELERS Passage, Customs and Duties A valid passport and visa are required. Omani embassies and consulates issue two-year, multiple-entry tourist andor business visas to qualified American citizens. No objection certificates for entry into Oman may also be arranged through an Omani sponsor. Certain categories of visitors may qualify to obtain a visa upon arrival at a port of entry. Evidence of yellow fever immunization is required if the traveler enters from an infected area. For further information on entry requirements, contact the Embassy of the Sultanate of Oman, 2535 Belmont Road N. W. Washington, D. C. telephone (202) 387-1980, 1981 or 1982. Travelers entering Oman may not carry with them, or bring into the country in accompanied baggage, firearms, ammunition, or pornography all are subject to seizure if found. No more than one bottle of liquor is permitted per non-Muslim adult. Unaccompanied baggage and shipments of household goods are subject to inspection. Books, videotapes, and audiotapes may be reviewed prior to being released to the owner. A copy of the packing list is required to clear effects through customs. It is advisable to contact the Embassy of the Sultanate of Oman in Washington for specific information regarding customs requirements. Omani employers often ask that expatriate employees deposit their passports with the company as a condition of employment. Although customary, this practice is not required by Omani law. The U. S. Embassy in Muscat advises Americans to exercise caution in agreeing to employer confiscation of passports, since this operates as a restraint on travel and could give undue leverage to the employer in a dispute. U. S. citizens living in or visiting Oman are encouraged to register at the Consular Section of the U. S. Embassy and obtain updated information on travel and security within Oman. The U. S. Embassy in Oman is located on Jameat ADuwal Al Arabiya Street, Al Khuwair area, in the capital city of Muscat, P. O. Box 202, Medinat Al Sultan Qaboos 115, Sultanate of Oman, telephone (968) 698-989, fax (968) 699-189. The Embassys e-mail address is aemctcnsomantel. om. and its web site can be visited at usa. gov. om. Pets entering Oman require an import permit from the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, Department of Animal Health, before shipment. Forms may be obtained from the Ministry through ones sponsor and must be submitted with a copy of the pets rabies vaccination record and a health certificate. Vaccination against rabies is required no less than one month and no more than six months before the travel date. There are additional vaccination requirements for dogs and cats less than 30 days old. A second health certificate dated 48 hours before the pet travels is also required. Pets may be subjected to a six-month quarantine, although this is usually not required when importing the pet from a rabies-free country. Pets must be manifested as cargo on an airway bill when transported by air. Currency, Banking and Weights and Measures The unit of currency is the Omani rial . divided into 1,000 baizas . The rial is pegged to the American dollar. American and American-affiliated banks include Citibank, Grindleys (Citibank), National Bank of Oman (Bank of America), and the Bank of Oman, Bahrain. and Kuwait (Chemical Bank). The metric system of weights and measures is used. Highway signs are in both Arabic and English, and give distances and speeds in kilometers. The time in Oman is Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) plus four. LOCAL HOLIDAYS Jan. 1 x2026 New Years Day Nov. 18 x2026 National Day Nov. 19 x2026 Birthday of HM Sultan Qaboos x2026 Id al-Adha x2026 Hijra New Year x2026 Mawlid an Nabi History amp Background Located in the Middle East, Oman, officially known as the Sultanate of Oman, borders Saudi Arabia. Yemen. and the United Arab Emirates. Its bordering waterways include the Arabian Sea, Gulf of Oman, and the Persian Gulf. Oman is 82,030 square miles (1,374 kilometers) large. Its capital and largest city is Muscat. Oman has a mixture of ethnic groups including people of Arab, Baluchi, South Asian, and African decent. Its official language is Arabic, but English, Indian dialects, Baluchi, and Urdu are spoken as well. Its primary religion is Islam . Oman gained its independence during its expulsion of the Portuguese in 1650. Its government is a monarchy, and the legal system is based on a combination of English common law and Islamic law. Although Oman is an independent state under the sultan, it has been under British protection since the early nineteenth century. Even though it is an active member of the World Trade Organization (WTO), Omans borders were once sealed to the outside world, with Muscats gates closing shut at sunset. In 1970, however, things changed drastically Sultan Qabus bin Said overthrew his father, Sultan Said ibn Timur, as the sultan and began to use money that came from the oil surplus to build schools, houses, roads, and improve the environment. The young sultan also made health and education free. Educational System x2014 Overview In 1970 there were only three official (governmentrun) schools in the country of Oman, with slightly more than 900 pupils. In fact, these three schools were reserved for boys that were personally chosen by the former sultan. In addition to these official schools, there was a religious institute with an enrollment of about 50 boys, three private schools for Hyderabadis (Indians), and one U. S. missionary school for 50 girls. Schools were, and continue to be, segregated by gender in Oman the exception to this is rural schools where a lack of facility space requires gender-mixed schools. In contrast to small enrollments and a few schools in 1970, by 1998 there were more than 950 government schools, 84 private schools, 192 adult education schools, and 228 literacy centers. In addition to these educational facilities, a special school for children with hearing impairments and a special school for children with intellectual impairments were established in the 1980s. However, by 1998, a special school for children with visual impairments had not yet been established, resulting in many of these students being sent to neighboring countries to get an education. In 1970 the adult illiteracy rate, according to the Europa World Yearbook 2000, was at a high of 80 percent. By 1994, under the leadership of Sultan Qabus, who made the expansion of the school system a national priority, government education expenditures rose to 4.5 percent of GNP and had grown to represent 15.5 percent of all government expenditures. By 1995 adult illiteracy had dropped to 36 percent, and government literacy centers had been successful in helping to correct illiteracy problem. By 2000 the illiteracy rate had dropped further nearing about 20 percent. Preprimary amp Primary Education In 1993, there were no government established nursery schools. As Omans society continues to develop and grow, more women are entering the workplace, thus creating a growing need for government-supported nursery schools. Although there were some nongovernmental schools, the government had not taken steps in that area. Part of this can be explained by Omani culture, which supports children being cared for by their parents or extended family members. However, since more Omani women are continuing their education and pursuing professional roles, added nursery schools will be useful. Overall, education in Oman is based on a 6-3-3 system, which means six years of primary education, three years of preparatory education, and three years of secondary education. Primary education begins at age six and continues for six years. Primary education is not compulsory, however, despite it not being compulsory, there are a growing number of Omani children who are attending due to a widespread support of education. At the primary level, students learn basic skills. Primary education enrollment was 76 percent of all relevant age-group children in 1997. Once children successfully complete primary education, they are promoted to their first grade of the preparatory level. Secondary Education Following primary education, pupils who successfully complete that level advance to the next level of education, which is divided into two equal parts called preparatory and secondary education, lasting a total of six years. The first preparatory schools were established in 1972. One was designated for boys and one for girls. Preparatory schools often share facilities with either a primary or secondary school. At the preparatory level, students may choose from four specific options: general education, health sciences, military studies, or vocational training. At the end of preparatory education, students take a national examination. If they successfully pass it, they are enrolled in secondary education. However, if they do not pass, they are not eligible to re-enroll as regular students. The first secondary school opened during the 1973-1974 academic year with an enrollment of 25 students. By 1985, there were more than 12,000 secondary students in Oman. Although secondary education levels still have lower enrollments than primary education (67 percent enrollment), this rate has been growing. Secondary education has two options, general education, which prepares pupils for the university, or a vocational education, which prepares pupils for careers. General education provides one year of basic academic subjects and two years in the humanities or sciences. The specialized vocational education includes basic academic subjects, but emphasizes Islamic, commercial, agricultural, industrial, or teacher training. During the 1998-1999 academic school year, a new system was initiated, which consisted of ten years of basic education and two years of secondary education. This was introduced to 17 schools with the intent of gradually implementing this change throughout the country. Higher Education Omans first university, Sultan Qaboos University, was founded in 1985 and opened in 1986. Its academic year begins in September and ends in May. The university is made up of five colleges: Education and Islamic Sciences, Science, Medicine, Agriculture, and Engineering. In 1998 there were more than 6,000 students attending the university. In addition to Sultan Qaboos University, the Europa World Yearbook 2000 identified eight teacher-training colleges, eight Islamic colleges, and nine vocational institutes x2014 including institutes for health sciences, banking, and technical institutes. There have also been great gains in the area of adult literacy, and education centers have been established. Administration, Finance, amp Educational Research Omans education system is governed by the Council for Education, which is chaired by the sultan and operated by the Ministry of Education and Youth. With continued government support, the total number of pupils in state education had grown from 909 pupils in 1970 to 528,400 between 1995-1996, with 24,100 teachers to instruct them in 965 schools. By 1997 there were 967 schools identified at the primary, preparatory, and secondary levels, not including 106 private kindergartens and schools regulated by the Ministry of Education. Plans were initiated in 1997 to further develop technical, agricultural, and artisticcraft training at the intermediate and secondary levels. The state has endeavored to make education available to all by providing free public education and encouraging the growth of private educational programs. Despite all of these government endeavors, education is not compulsory, which ultimately impacts the national literacy rate. Even though Omans literacy rate is much better than many countries, the literacy rate would be expected to grow even more with a compulsory education system. Teaching Profession Training for Omani primary level teachers was first initiated in 1976. From there, training for preparatory and secondary education teachers was established. By 1984, the intermediate colleges for male and female teachers were established intermediate colleges accept secondary education graduates and train them to be teachers, focusing on developing well-rounded teachers who have both scientific and educational backgrounds and an ability to be leaders in their communities. By the mid-1980s the government began to put a greater emphasis on teacher training to reduce its dependency on foreign staff. In 1980-1981 only 11 percent of the teaching staff were native Omanis. Although this number has increased since then, having indigenous Omani teachers continues to be a national agenda. Oman has made great growth in its general educational arena and literacy improvements however, growth in technological supports that facilitate educational advances have been slower x2014 the type and amount of instructional technology that teachers receive varies greatly. Even at the higher education levels, the most common instructional media used by many teachers and a large portion of student teachers has been chalkboards, followed by lectures, printed materials, and the use of textbooks. The use of computer tools, including software and Internet sources has not been fully accessed, understood, or used. The use of more media in the Omani education system is still needed. In 1999, Oman had only one Internet service provider, which minimized the amount of global resources that pupils could receive and access. In addition to the need for more technological and Internet resources, Oman is in greater need of library resources at all levels of the education system, including national. Library resources and facilities have been limited in content and sparsely populated. As a whole, the educational system in Oman has improved tremendously under Sultan Qabus. The literacy rate has greatly improved, national resources have made educational support a priority, and teacher training has sought to better prepare teachers and to solicit more indigenous teachers from Oman. With added improvements in the area of technological resources, library expansion, and government nursery care, Omans educational system will only grow stronger. Bibliography Abu-Jaber, Majed. Student Teachers Use of Instructional Media and its Implications at Sultan Qaboos University in the Sultanate of Oman. International Journal of Instructional Media 23, no. 1 (1996): 59-78. The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). The World Factbook 2000. Directorate of Intelligence, 1 January 2001. Available from cia. gov . Dahawy, Bayoumi Mohamed. Pre-school Education in Egypt, Oman, and Japan: A Comparative Perspective. ResearchTechnical Reports (April 1993): 1-38. The Europa World Yearbook 2000. Vol. 1. London: Europa Publications Limited, 2000. Hadidi, Muna S. Z. Education of Children with Vision Impairments in the Sultanate of Oman. International Journal of Disability, Development, and Education 45, no. 4 (December 1998): 423-429. Happy and Rich in an Omani Toytown. The Economist, 2 September 2000. Karim, Bakri Musa A. The Emergence of Libraries in the Sultanate of Oman. International Library Review 23, no.3 (September 1991): 229-236. The Library of Congress. Country Studies: Area Handbook Series, 6 March 2001. Available from lcweb2.loc. govfrdcscshome. html . Razik, Taher A. Evaluation of Curriculum The Case of Oman: Primary Level. Ministry of Education and Youth, 1987. x2014 Kimberly A. Battle-Walters Oman ( Uman ) is situated in the southeastern portion of the Arabian Peninsula next to Yemen. Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates (UAE). It is an independent sultanate ( Sultanat Uman ) that has considerably upgraded its economic and social situation through various developments since a 1970 peaceful coup established Qa-boos bin Said al Said as sultan in place of his father. In light of its interest in technological progress and its historical relationship with Great Britain. Oman utilizes Western advisors in an attempt to provide itself with a buffer against its larger, better funded and historically aggressive neighbors. Freedom of the press is guaranteed by law in Article 31 of Omans Basic Statute. However, the exact wording leaves room for interpretations that can be antithetical to a free press, i. e. matter leading to discord, harming the States security or abusing human dignity or rights is prohibited. There are six daily newspapers, four in Arabic and two in English. Those printed in Arabic are: Khaleej Times, Oman Daily Newspaper (with a circulation of 15,560), Ash-Shabibah, and Al-Watan (The Nation, 32,500). Those published in English are: The Oman Daily Observer (22,000) and the Times of Oman (15,000). There are approximately 20 periodicals published in the sultanate, a number of them by sections of the government. They include: Jund Oman (Soldiers of Oman, a monthly magazine of the Ministry of Defence), Al-Ghorfa (Oman Commerce, a bi-monthly with a circulation of 10,500 and published by Oman Chamber of Commerce and Industry), Al-Omaniya (Omani Woman, a monthly with a circulation of 10,500), Oman Today (a bimonthly with a circulation of 20,000 that covers leisure and sports), Al-Akidah (The Faith, a weekly with a circulation of 10,000 covering politics), Al-Mazari (Farms, a weekly journal of the ministries of Agriculture and Fish-eries, and of Petroleum and Minerals). Radio and television are overseen by the Ministry of Information. A director general of Radio and Television reports to the Minister of Information. The director general is responsible for complete oversight of operations. Radio and television media are entirely government funded advertising is prohibited. Radio Sultanate of Oman and Radio Salalah were both founded in 1970. Radio development was especially important to Oman in the 1970s to counteract anti-Omani propaganda being broadcast from Marxist South Yemen. In 2000 there were approximately 1.4 million radios in the country being broadcast to from three AM, nine FM, and two shortwave stations, and typically receiving broadcasts in Arabic, English and Dhofari. While Oman has no particular aspersions to become a broadcasting powerhouse in the region, programming is available in a few ways to outsiders. Those interested can listen to Omani radio utilizing either an Omani satellite channel on ARABSAT or via the Internet. In the future broadcasts may also be available on Egypt s NILESAT. INTELSAT also is available to Oman. Omani television is as prevalent as radio, with about 1.4 million television sets reported in 2000. There are stations operating in both Muscat and Salalah, with 117 other television transmitters, many of them solar powered, throughout the country. The nodes of this network are connected by satellite. Local programming in Oman has the potential for greater influence than in some of the other Arab region states because the positioning of major cities in the state does not conflict with any other broadcast signals there is no competition. The competition present comes from home videos and satellite television signals (satellite dish ownership is legally sanctioned). Omani state television imports less Western programming than some other Gulf states and tends to emphasize regionally contextual programming concerning faith, history, politics, social life and the like. The British Broadcasting Company utilizes Masirah Island off the coast of Oman for a medium-wave relay station to boost the signal for its Arabic, Farsi, Hindi. Pashtu, English and Urdu programming. The eventual plan is to move the relay station from the island to the Omani mainland. All of this is suggests an historical and continuing relationship between Oman and Great Britain. Oman began Internet service in 1997 and recently boasted 50,000 users. Reporters Sans Frontieres notes that while the Internet has been a positive move for Oman, Web sites at times are blocked by OmanTelecommunications (OmanTel) since they are perceived as incompatible with Islam andor too Westernized. Due to the governments wish to maintain control over this medium, there remains one Internet service provider for the entire country. Bibliography Al-Ghorfa (Oman Commerce). Available from omanchamber. org. All the Worlds Newspapers. Available from webwombat. auintercomnewsprsindex. htm . Allen, Calvin H. and W. L. Rigsbee. Oman under Qa-boos: From Coup to Constitution, 1970-1996. London: Frank Cass, 2000. Boyd, Douglas. Broadcasting in the Arab World: A Survey of the Electronic Media in the Middle East, 3rd edition. Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press, 1999. Congressional Quarterly Inc. The Middle East, 9th ed. 2000. Washington, DC. Data and Statistics. World Bank. Available from worldbank. orgdatacountrydatacountrydata. html . Eickelman, Christine. Women and Community in Oman. New York: New York University Press, 1984. International Press Institute. World Press Review. Available from freemedia. atwpfrworld. html. Kechichian, J. Oman and the World. Rand, 1997. Kurian, George, ed. World Press Encyclopedia. New York: Facts on File, Inc. 1982. The Library of Congress. Country Studies. Available from lcweb2.loc. govfrdcs . Maher, Joanne, ed. Regional Surveys of the World: The Middle East and North Africa 2002, 48th ed. London: Europa Publications, 2001. Middle East Archives 2002. Reporters Sans Frontieres. Available from rsf. fr . Ministry of Information. Available from omanet . Oman. BBC News Country Profiles. Available from-news. bbc. co. uk . Oman. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). In The World Factbook 2001. Available: cia. govciapublicationsfactbook . Oman Annual Report 2002. Reporters Sans Frontieres. Available from rsf. fr . Redmon, Clare, ed. Willings Press Guide 2002, vol. 2. Chesham Bucks, UK: Waymaker Ltd, 2002. Russell, Malcom. The Middle East and South Asia 2001, 35th ed. Harpers Ferry, WV: United Book Press, Inc. 2001. Stat-USA International Trade Library: Country Background Notes. Available from stat-usa. gov. Sumner, Jeff, ed. Gale Directory of Publications and Broadcast Media, Vol. 5, 136th ed. Farmington Hills, MI: Gale Group, 2002. UNESCO Institute for Statistics. Available from uis. unesco. org. World Desk Reference. Available from travel. dkwdr. Zahlan, Rosmarie Said, and Roger Owen. The Making of the Modern Gulf States: Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, the UAE and Oman. Reading: Ithaca Press, 1997. Clint B. Thomas Baldwin Cite this article Pick a style below, and copy the text for your bibliography. arabian peninsula sultanate formerly known as muscat and oman . Oman. officially the Sultanate of Oman since 1970, extends some 1,000 miles along the southeast coast of the Arabian Peninsula, on the Arabian Sea and the Gulf of Oman. Approximately 118,000 square miles, it has a population of 2,018,074 (1993 census). Omans long-disputed southern border with Yemen and its western borders with Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates. and the maritime northern border with Iran in the Strait of Hormuz, have all been largely negotiated and demarcated. Physically, Oman in divided into three regions: Ru x2BE us al-Jibal, Oman Proper, and Dhufar. The Ru x2BE us al-Jibal exclave is separated from Oman by a 50-mile corridor of United Arab Emirates territory and is the mountainous tip of the Musandam Peninsula. Oman Proper, including Masira and the Daymaniyat Islands, is characterized by a narrow coastal plain (Batina), a parallel mountain chain (Jabal Hajar) anchored by Jabal al-Akhdar, and along its western limits, a dry gravel plain (al-Dhahira) that blends into the Rub al-Khali desert. Additional desert and gravel plains (Sharqiyya and Wusta) extend to the south. Dhufar, including the Halaniyat (Khuriya Muriyah) Islands, also has parallel regions of a coastal plain, the Qara Mountains, and interior desert. The overall climate is hot, with summer temperatures reaching 120 xB0 F dry inland, the coast is extremely humid. The climate of Dhufar is moderated by summer monsoon rains. Omans population is 80 percent Omani Arab, plus a significant South Asian expatriate community. Arabic is the predominant language, but English is used widely. Oman is unique because Ibadi Islam, characterized by its adherence to the principle of an elected religious leader called an imam, is the majority faith. Other Muslims include large Sunni and small Shi x2BF ite minorities, and a small Hindu community. The Muscat capital area, an amalgam of several formerly separate coastal towns adjacent to Muscat, is the major urban center, with 550,000 people. Other cities are Salala, Nizwa, and Suhar. Omans modern history began in 1749 when Ahmad ibn Sa x2BF id (1749 x2013 1783), founder of its present Al Bu Sa x2BF id dynasty, restored Omani independence from Persian invaders and gained election as imam. Ahmad successfully balanced tribal and religious support while encouraging maritime and commercial expansion, but his successors devoted greater attention to external affairs and abandoned claims to the imamate. Sa x2BF id ibn Sultan Al Bu Sa x2BF id (1804 x2013 1856) established the antecedent of todays sultanate by utilizing Muscat as the base for expansion in the Persian (Arabian) Gulf and East Africa to form the western Indian Ocean s leading maritime state. But this proto-sultanate was considered illegitimate by Omanis committed to the imamate ideal. Periodic interventions by the Sa x2BF udis aggravated the internal instability, and Sa x2BF id often ran afoul of his British allies efforts to suppress both the slave trade and piracy, the latter a consequence of Sa x2BF ids expansionism. With his options in Arabia thwarted, Sa x2BF id made Zanzibar his principal residence in the 1830s. Following Sa x2BF ids death in 1856, the British recognized separate Al Bu Sa x2BF id sultanates in Muscat and Zanzibar. Long-simmering Omani opposition to political conditions peaked with the election of Azzan ibn Qays (1868 x2013 1871), leader of an Al Bu Sa x2BF id cadet branch, as imam, and the unification of Oman under his rule. The British government utilized gunship diplomacy to overthrow the imamate and restore the sultanate. Muscat became a thinly veiled British protectorate. Support for the imamate remained strong and continued to grow as a consequence of the disruptive influences of economic globalization in the late nineteenth century. In the early twentieth century the imamate reappeared in Omans interior but failed to overthrow the British-defended sultanate. In 1920 the rival Omani governments signed the so-called Treaty of Sib and regularized the conditions under which they coexisted for the next thirty-five years. Sa x2BF id ibn Taymur Al Bu Sa x2BF id (1932 x2013 1970) signaled Muscats revival by diminishing British influence, suppressing the imamate, and reuniting Oman in 1957, then initiating exploitation of its oil resources. But his opposition to socioeconomic development led to widespread disaffection, a rebellion in Dhufar, and greater dependence on the British. In July 1970 Qabus (also Qaboos) ibn Sa x2BF id deposed his father. The new sultan ended Omans long diplomatic isolation, suppressed the insurgency in Dhufar, and launched political and economic reforms. Omans political system has evolved from autocracy to nascent democratic system during the past thirty years. The Basic Law of 1996 defines the political system, which has two consultative bodies x2014 an elected Majlis al-Shura and an appointed Council of State. There are no political parties. The sultan continues to be the source of all law. An independent judiciary system was implemented in 2001. In principle, women have full political rights, and they do serve in both consultative bodies and senior government positions. Until the early 1970s Omanis subsisted upon an agricultural and fishing economy. Oil exports began in 1967 and funded modest economic development under Sa x2BF id ibn Taymur. Those efforts accelerated greatly under Qabus after 1970. Modernized agriculture, livestock, and fishery practices still support about 50 percent of the population, but service jobs (35) in both the public and private sector have increased dramatically. Industry and commerce (15) provide other livelihoods. Production of petroleum products, both crude oil and natural gas, dominates the economy, accounting for 70 percent of state revenues and 90 percent of exports, mostly to East Asia. Oman also exports copper and chromite, some industrial goods (mostly clothing), and food products, and it imports machinery, transport, and consumer goods, mainly from Japan. Britain. the United Arab Emirates, and South Asia. Since 1970 the government has developed a comprehensive communication and transportation infrastructure and provided modern education through university level and healthcare facilities for the Omani people. see also al bu sa x2BF id family and tribe of oman al bu sa x2BF id, qabus ibn sa x2BF id al bu sa x2BF id, sa x2BF id ibn taymur dhufar majles al-shura muscat sib, treaty of (1920) zanzibar. Bibliography Allen, Calvin H. Jr. and Rigsbee, W. Lynn. Oman under Qaboos: From Coup to Constitution, 1970 x2013 1996. London: Frank Cass, 2000. Anthony, John Duke. Historical and Cultural Dictionary of the Sultanate of Oman and the Emirates of Eastern Arabia. Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press, 1976. Kechichian, Joseph A. Oman and the World: The Emergence of an Independent Foreign Policy. Santa Monica, CA: RAND, 1995. Landen, Robert G. Oman since 1856: Disruptive Modernization in a Traditional Arab Society. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1967. Peterson, J. E. Oman in the Twentieth Century: Political Foundations of an Emerging State. London: Croon Helm, 1978. Wilkinson, John C. The Imamate Tradition of Oman. Cambridge, U. K. Cambridge University Press, 1987. robert g. landen updated by calvin h. allen, jr. Official name: Sultanate of Oman Area: 212,460 square kilometers (82,031 square miles) Highest point on mainland: Jabal Sham (3,035 meters9,957 feet) Lowest point on land: Sea level Hemispheres: Northern and Eastern Time zone: 4 p. m. noon GMT Longest distances: 972 kilometers (604 miles) from northeast to southwest 513 kilometers (319 miles) from southeast to northwest Land boundaries: 1,374 kilometers (854 miles) total boundary length Yemen 288 kilometers (179 miles) Saudi Arabia 676 kilometers (420 miles) United Arab Emirates 410 kilometers (255 miles) Coastline: 2,092 kilometers (1,300 miles) Territorial sea limits: 22 kilometers (12 nautical miles) 1 LOCATION AND SIZE The sultanate of Oman is located in the extreme southeastern corner of the Arabian Peninsula and is the second-largest country on the peninsula. It includes a small enclave at the tip of the Musandam Peninsula, on the Strait of Hormuz, that is separated from the rest of Oman by the United Arab Emirates. With an area of 212,460 square kilometers (82,031 square miles), Oman is nearly as large as the state of Kansas . 2 TERRITORIES AND DEPENDENCIES Oman has no territories or dependencies. Omans climate is arid subtropical. The climate differs somewhat from one region to another, however. The interior is generally very hot, with temperatures reaching 54 xB0 C (129 xB0 F) in the hot season from May to October. The coastal areas are hot and humid from April to October. The prevailing summer wind, the Gharbi . makes the heat more oppressive. In the south, the Dhofar (Zufar) region has a more moderate climate. Average annual precipitation is 5 to 10 centimeters (2 to 4 inches), depending on the region and the prevailing summer wind. While the mountain areas receive more plentiful rainfall, some parts of the coast, particularly those areas near the island of Ma x15F x12B rah, sometimes receive no rain at all. Yearly rainfall totals of up to 64 centimeters (25 inches) have been recorded in the rainy season from late June to October. An unusual feature of Omans weather is that part of the eastern coast regularly has dense fog. 4 TOPOGRAPHIC REGIONS Oman has a diverse topography with a number of different regions and subregions. The major regions are the narrow Al B x101 tinah coastal plain to the north, bordering the Gulf of Oman the Al Hajar mountain range that stretches south-eastward paralleling the northern coast an interior plateau that stretches southwestward toward the desert the Rubal Kh x101 l x12B desert, which Oman shares with Saudi Arabia and Yemen the barren plain of Jalaan, which borders the Arabian Sea on the east and the southern Dhofar region, which includes both mountainous highlands and a fertile coastal strip that constitutes the southernmost part of Oman. In addition, Oman encompasses an isolated strip of land at the tip of the Musandem Peninsula. 5 OCEANS AND SEAS Oman borders the Arabian Sea and the Gulf of Oman, the latter of which separates the Arabian Peninsula from the rest of the Middle East . Sea Inlets and Straits Inlets ( khors ) in the Al B x101 tinah plain often have stands of mangroves. An extremely rugged area exists where two inlets, the Elphin-stone and Malcom, cut into the coastline south of the Strait of Hormuz. Islands and Archipelagos Along the Arabian Sea coastline and separated from it by about 16 kilometers (10 miles) is the barren and virtually uninhabited island of Ma x15F x12B rah, Coastal Features The northern coastline is smooth, while the shore along the Arabian Sea is more jagged and indented, forming several bays and capes (including the Ras al Hadd, which separates the Gulf of Oman from the Arabian Sea) and the Gulf of Ma x15F x12B rah near Ma x15F x12B rah Island. 6 INLAND LAKES There are no lakes in Oman, but the country has two large areas of salt flats, one in the west-central region and another opposite Ma x15F x12B rah Island, off the eastern coast. 7 RIVERS AND WATERFALLS There are no perennial rivers in Oman. A small number of wadis (shallow watercourses) are found in the Al Hajar Mountains and their foothills, however. Situated mainly in Saudi Arabia but occupying a portion of western Oman, the Rubal Kh x101 l x12B. or Empty Quarter, is one of the largest sand deserts in the world and one of the driest places on earth. The Wahiba Sands, in Omans interior, are the largest areas of lithified (changed into solid rock) sand dunes in the world. Its surface dunes can reach heights of 100 meters (328 feet). 9 FLAT AND ROLLING TERRAIN The Al B x101 tinah coastal plain to the north, scored along its length by wadis . is cultivated with the aid of irrigation. The sandy plain of Jalaan to the east is barren and inhospitable, while the narrow coastal strip of the Dhofar region in the south is lush and fertile. The valleys and foothills immediately south of the Al Hajar Mountains are considered the countrys heartland. 10 MOUNTAINS AND VOLCANOES The Al Hajar (the Rock) Mountains x2014 the highest in the eastern part of the Arabian peninsula x2014 form two ranges: the Hajar al-Gharbi, or Western Hajar, and the Hajar al-Shargi, or Eastern Hajar. They are divided by the Wadi San x101 il, a valley that forms the traditional route between Masqat and the interior. The general elevation is about 4,000 feet (1,219 meters). In the southern Dhofar region, a semicircular band of mountains rises to around 1,500 meters (5,000 feet). 11 CANYONS AND CAVES There are many caverns in Oman. One of the largest in the world, Teyq Cave, is 250 meters (820 feet) deep and 300 cubic meters (10,595 cubic feet) in volume. 12 PLATEAUS AND MONOLITHS The foothills of the Al Hajar Mountains in the north give way to a plateau with an average height of about 300 meters (1,000 feet). It is mostly stony and waterless, arable only at oases, extending to the sands of the Rubal Kh x101 l x12B Desert. In the central part of Oman, in the Al-Wusta region, this plateau narrows to the Jiddat al-Har x101 s x12B s, bordered by the Rubal Kh x101 l x12B desert to the west and the plain of Jalaan to the east. 13 MAN-MADE FEATURES There are three forts in Muscat that have remained essentially unchanged since the 1580s. 14 FURTHER READING Chatty, Dawn. Mobile Pastoralists: Development Planning and Social Change in Oman. New York. Columbia University Press, 1996. Kay, Shirley. Enchanting Oman. Dubai. United Arab Emirates: Motivate Publishing, 1988. Newcombe, Ozzie. The Heritage of Oman: A Celebration in Photographs. Reading, Berkshire, U. K. Garnet Publishing, 1995. Oman: People amp Heritage. Oman: Oman Daily Observer, 1994. Ministry of Information: Sultanate of Oman. omanet (accessed March 10, 2003). Natural History of Oman amp Arabia. oman. orgnath00.htm (accessed May 10, 2003). Oman (333m228n180). officially Sultanate of Oman, independent sultanate (2005 est. pop. 3,002,000), c.82,000 sq mi (212,380 sq km), SE Arabian peninsula, on the Gulf of Oman and the Arabian Sea. It is bordered on the west by Yemen and Saudi Arabia and on the north by the United Arab Emirates, which separates the major portion of the sultanate from a small area on the Strait of Hormuz. The capital and largest city is Muscat. For the most part, Oman comprises a narrow coastal plain backed by hill ranges and an interior desert plateau. The highest point is Jebel Sham (c.9,900 ft3,018 m).The inhabitants are mostly Arabs there are also minorities of Baluchis, South Asians, East Africans, and migrant workers of varied ethnicities. About 75 are Ibadhi Muslims the rest are mostly Sunni or Shiite Muslims or Hindus. Arabic is the official language English, Baluchi, and Urdu are also spoken. In the extreme north, dates, limes, nuts, bananas, alfalfa, and vegetables are cultivated, and in the southwest there is an abundance of camels, cattle and other livestock. Fishing is an important industry. The major product, however, is oil, which was discovered in Oman in 1964 and first exported in 1967. Crude oil is produced and refined other industrial products include natural gas, copper, steel, chemicals, and optic fiber. Petroleum, reexported goods, fish, metals, and textiles are important exports imports include machinery and transportation equipment, manufactured goods, foods, livestock, and lubricants. Oman has a large trade surplus. The main trading partners are Japan, the United Arab Emirates, China, and South Korea. Oman does not have a constitution, but the Basic Law, which was promulgated by royal decree in 1996, is considered by the government to be a constitution. The monarch is both head of state and head of government. The bicameral legislature consists of the 58-seat Majlis al-Dawla, or upper house, whose members are appointed by the monarch, and the 84-seat Majlis al-Shura, or lower house, whose members are popularly elected to serve four-year terms. Though its influence was increased in 2011, the legislature is mainly an advisory body. Administratively, the country is divided into five regions and four governorates. Ancient settlements in Oman, initially associated with nomads, date back to c.6000 BC Beginning in the 6th cent. BC and for roughly a millenium thereafter, much of coastal Oman was dominated by Persia (under the Achaemenids and Sassanids ) and Parthia. Sumhuram, ruins in S Oman near modern Salalah, was founded (late 1st cent. BC) as a port in the frankincense trade and was closely linked to ancient Sheba. In the 6th cent. AD the region converted to Islam, and was successively controlled by the Umayyads. Abbasids. Karmathians. Buyids. and Seljuk Turks. Much of the coast of Oman was controlled by Portugal from 1508 to 1659, when the Ottoman Empire took possession. The Ottoman Turks were driven out in 1741 by Ahmad ibn Said of Yemen, who founded the present royal line. In the late 18th cent. Oman began its close ties with Great Britain, which still continue. In the early 19th cent. Oman was the most powerful state in Arabia, controlling Zanzibar and much of the coast of Iran and Baluchistan. Zanzibar was lost in 1856, and the last Omani hold on the Baluchistan coast, Gwadar. was ceded to Pakistan in 1958. The sultan of Oman has had frequent clashes with the imam (leader) of the interior ethnic groups. In 1957 the groups revolted but were suppressed with British aid. Several Arab countries supporting the imam charged in the 1960s that the sultans regime was oppressive and that the British were exercising colonial influence in Oman. In 1965 the United Nations called for the elimination of British influence in Oman. In 1970, Sultan Said ibn Timer was deposed by his son, Qabus bin Said, who promised to use oil revenues for modernization. Rebel activity continued until the mid-1970s, however, particularly in Dhofar, in the south, where a Chinese-aided liberation front was strong. Oman joined the United Nations and the Arab League in 1971, but it did not become part of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). In 1981, Oman joined Persian Gulf nations and Saudi Arabia in founding the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) and has since sought to promote ties among the participating nations. Relations between Oman and the United States have been close since the 1970s. However, Oman did not establish full diplomatic relations with its neighbor Southern Yemen until 1983 and with the Soviet Union until 1985. As a result of the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in Aug. 1990, Oman opened its bases to international coalition forces against Iraq in the 1991 Persian Gulf War. In 1996 the sultan issued a decree promulgating a new basic law that established a procedure for choosing the royal successor, provided for a bicameral advisory council with some limited legislative powers and a prime minister, and guaranteed basic civil liberties for Omani citizens. Military bases in Oman were used (2001) by U. S. forces involved in ground raids against Afghanistan and Osama bin Laden. In 2003 the lower house of the advisory council was freely elected for the first time. In the first half of 2011, Oman, like many other Arab nations, experienced antigovernment protests in response, the sultan offered some economic concessions and political reforms, but dissent and discontent, in the form of strikes and protests, continued to fester on a small scale. See P. Risso, Oman and Muscat (1986) C. H. Allen, Jr. Oman (1986) D. Hawley, ed. Oman and Its Renaissance (4th ed. 1987) J. C. Wilkinson, The Imamate Tradition of Oman (1987) M. Valeri, Oman: Politics and Society in the Qaboos State (2009, repr. 2014) A. R. Takriti, Monsoon Revolution: Republicans, Sultans, and Empires in Oman, 196582111976 (2013). Cite this article Pick a style below, and copy the text for your bibliography. Omani rial 100 baizas Sultanate on the se corner of the Arabian peninsula, sw Asia the capital is Muscat . Land and climate Oman is 95 desert. On the Gulf of Oman coast lies the fertile plain of Al Batinah, and the city of Muscat. The plain is backed by the Al Hajar mountains, which rise, at Jebel Sham, to 3019m (9905ft). In the s lies part of the barren and rocky Rub al Khali desert (x2018Empty Quarterx2019). The sultanate also includes the tip of the Musandam Peninsula, overlooking the strategic Strait of Hormuz, and separated from the rest of Oman by the United Arab Emirates. Oman has a hot tropical climate. In Muscat, summer temperatures rise to 47xB0C (117xB0F). Parts of the n mountains have an average annual rainfall of 400mm (16in), but most of Oman has less than 125mm (5in). Date palms grow on the coastal plain and around desert oases. Grassy pasture occurs on the Al Hajar mountains and on the s coast. History and Politics In ancient times, Oman was an important trading area on the main route between The Gulf and the Indian Ocean. Islam was introduced in the 7th century ad. and Muslim culture remains a unifying force. In 1507, the Portuguese captured several seaports in Oman, including Muscat. Portugal controlled maritime trade until expelled by the Ottomans in 1659. Oman set up trading posts in East Africa, including Zanzibar in 1698 and, until the 1860s, was the dominant Arabian power. The al-Said family have ruled Oman since taking power in 1741. During the 20th century, the sultanate was often in conflict with religious leaders ( imams ) of the Ibahdi sect, who sought a more theocratic society. British colonial interference and economic inequality led to popular rebellions in the 1950s and 1960s. Insurrectionist forces continued to control much of s Oman. In 1970, Sultan Said bin Taimur was deposed by his son, Qaboos bin Said. In 1971, Oman joined the UN and the Arab League. Qaboos bin Said initiated the modernization of health, education, and social welfare services. Despite the extension of free education, 65 of the population remained illiterate by 1992. In 1981, Oman was a founder member of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) . Ties with the UK and the USA remain strong. Oman allowed coalition forces to use its military bases during the Gulf War (1991). Oman is an upper-middle-income developing country (2000 GDP per capita, US7700). Oil production dominates the economy. Oil was first discovered in 1964, and now accounts for more than 90 of exports. The industry attracts many migrant workers. Oil refining and the processing of copper are among Omans few manufacturing industries. Agriculture supports 50 of the workforce. Major crops include alfalfa, bananas, coconuts, dates, limes, and tobacco. Some farmers raise camels and cattle. Fishing, especially for sardines, is also important, but Oman is reliant on food imports. Political map Physical map Alternative Names Various peoples in Oman use regional names such as Dhofari, which identifies them as being from the southern region of Oman, or Zanzibari, which identifies them as having close links with East Africa and at one time Zanzibar. Orientation Identification. Although Oman has existed as a distinct nation for several thousand years, the modern state x2014 the Sultanate of Oman x2014 is a creation of the last two centuries. The traditional territorial concept of Oman was altered in this period by the independence of the northwestern part of Oman as the United Arab Emirates and the absorption into the sultanate of the southern region of Dhofar. Although the names of both Oman and Dhofar are clearly of great antiquity, their original meanings and sources are uncertain. While most northern Omanis share a common Arab, Muslim. and tribal culture, the people of Dhofar remain culturally distinct and often feel culturally closer to neighboring regions in Yemen to the west. Location and Geography. The Omani culture owes much to the geography of the country. The cultural heartland lies in the interior, in the valleys of the mountainous backbone which parallels the coastal plains and the interior plains. Seas to the north and east and deserts to west and south have served to isolate the country from the outside world. At the same time, Omans presence on the Indian Ocean has fostered a long maritime tradition which has enriched the culture through the settlement of many Baluchis (the Indo-Iranian people of Baluchistan) along the northern coast and the interaction with East African cultures. Traditionally, Omans capital was located in the interior but Muscat (Masqat), now the principal seaport, has served as the capital since the beginning of the nineteenth century. Northern Oman is separated from southern Dhofar by several hundred miles of desert, which results in the cultural distinctiveness of the Dhofaris. Demography. Omans only census (1993) revealed a total population of 2 million, of which 1.5 million were Omanis. There were 175,000 residents of Dhofar. Census figures were not broken down into ethnic or linguistic categories, although it can be estimated that several hundred thousand Omanis were of Baluchi origin. About half the Omani population belongs to the Ibadi sect of Islam and a similar number belong to mainstream Sunni Islam. There are several small communities of Shia Muslims. Population growth is estimated at nearly 4 percent per year. Linguistic Affiliation. Arabic is the principal language spoken by Omanis, who have spoken it since the immigration of Arab tribes nearly two millennia ago. The Omani dialect generally is close to modern standard Arabic, although coastal dialects employ a number of loanwords from Baluchi, Persian, Urdu and Gujarati (two Indo-Aryan languages), and even Portuguese. The mountain peoples of Dhofar, as well as several small nomadic groups in the desert between Dhofar and northern Oman, speak a variety of unique South Arabian languages that are not mutually intelligible with modern Arabic. Minority groups speak Arabic as well as their own languages at home, and English is widely spoken as a second language. Symbolism. The national symbol employs a pair of crossed khanjars, the traditional daggers that all Omani men wore until recently (and still wear on formal occasions). This symbol is integrated into the national flag and appears in nearly all government logos. History and Ethnic Relations Emergence of the Nation. Oman has a very long history and was known as Magan to ancient Persian and Mesopotamian civilizations and was an important producer of copper and ornamental stone. The Arab tribes in Oman adopted Islam during the lifetime of the prophet Muhammad (c.570 x2013 632) and forced the Persian colonizers to leave. Since then, Oman has generally remained an independent Arab and IbadiSunni Muslim entity. National Identity. The Omani national identity has evolved from its predominant Arab language and culture, its tribal organization, and Islam. Oman withstood attempts by classical Islamic empires to subdue the country, and the Portuguese invasion of the sixteenth century was confined to coastal ports and was terminated by national Omani resistance in the mid-seventeenth century. Ethnic Relations. Although the dominant cultural group in Oman is Arab and IbadiSunni Muslim, the culture has been very tolerant of other groups. Ethnic, sectarian, or linguistic conflict rarely occurs in Oman although tribal disputes are not unknown. Urbanism, Architecture, and the Use of Space The contemporary urban character of Omani culture has strong ties to Indian Mogul architectural style. This is manifested in the seafront whitewashed two - and occasionally three-story residential buildings that line the road along the harbor of Matrah (Muscats sister city). It is also seen in the style of some mosques and minarets with their slim and ornate shapes, as well as in public buildings such as the Ministry of Foreign Affairs building in Qurm. Other contemporary constructions are more eclectic in style. Earlier architectural styles found in the towns and interior cities of Oman, such as Nizwa, Ibri, Ibra, and Bahla, reflected a pared down and simpler cultural expression and use of space that was consistent with Ibadism, a relatively austere form of Islam. Private residences reflect the cultures concern for gendered space. Most Omani homes have formal rooms for men and their visitors, while women generally socialize in each others private quarters. When people meet to mark various rites of passage, such as births, marriages, and deaths, the celebrations are marked by clear gendered space. It is women who visit other women on the occasion of a birth in a family. Marriage rituals entail elaborate celebrations for women only, for men only, and, when space is open, with segregated sitting areas. Deaths are similarly marked by gendered use of space, with only men attending the actual burial of a body. Food and Economy Food in Daily Life. Omani cuisine revolves around rice. The morning meal is not significant, often consisting of bread or leftovers from the day before, and tea. The main meal of the day is in early to mid-afternoon. It is generally a large dish of rice with a thin sauce often based on tomato or tomato paste and meat or fish. Pork does not exist in the Omani diet as it is prohibited by Islam. The evening meal is generally very light, sometimes consisting only of fruit or bread and tea. The influence of Indian cooking is very strong. A variety of Indian restaurants are found throughout the country. In the capital area, there are a number of Western fast-food establishments, as well as a variety of French, Italian, Japanese, and Chinese restaurants. Food Customs and Ceremonial Occasions. Dates, fresh or dried, are important to the diet and to the ritual of hospitality. Equally important is helwa, a sweet confection based on clarified butter, honey, and spices. Both are served to guests with strong, bitter, and often cardamom-scented coffee. During Ramadan, the Islamic month of fasting, Omanis refrain from eating or drinking between sunrise and sunset. They break their fast with coffee and dates followed shortly thereafter by a ritual meal, often shared with family and close friends, of elaborate foods heavy in oils and spices. Basic Economy. A large percentage of Omanis live in rural areas and many others own land and property in the countryside even though they live and work in the towns. Many of those in the countryside are self-sufficient farmers and fishermen. Livestock production is the basis of agricultural activity in the center and south of Oman, with fishing along Omans long coastline coming a close second. Nearly one-third of Omanis nonoil exports come from agriculture and fisheries. Oman imports more than half the vegetables and dairy products it needs and just under half the beef, eggs, and mutton. Land Tenure and Property. All land is officially owned by the state. Some land has been recognized as privately held and in the late twentieth century the government pursued a policy of providing all Omanis with private parcels of land for residences and farms. Shared property rights or land use rights are held by custom and are generally tribal in origin. Hence much of the interior semiarid and arid lands are used by nomadic pastoral tribes. Although their territory is no longer recognized as theirs by the state, it remains uncontested by local inhabitants and other tribes. Commercial Activities. Agriculture and fishing are the traditional economic activities in Oman. Dates and limes, make up most of the countrys exports. Coconut palms, wheat, and bananas are also grown. Cattle are raised in Dhofar. Fish and shellfish exports create a steady income of roughly 40 million (U. S.). Major Industries. Oman is an oil-producing nation and revenues from petroleum products have been the backbone of Omans dramatic development over the last three decades of the twentieth century. But oil resources are not extensive and natural gas reserves are becoming more prominent, with liquified natural gas exports expected to provide significant new income in the early twenty-first century. Commercio. After oil, petroleum, and liquified gas, fish and shellfish account for the majority of Omans export trade. The fish and shellfish are sold mainly to Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates, although some of this fresh product finds its way in refrigerated trucks further north. Dates and limes are also exported. Division of Labor. Both men and women engage in agricultural activities: men work the date gardens, while women tend to the fields of wheat, barley, and alfalfa. Men go out in fishing boats or dive from the shore, while women often mend fishing nets. Children take on domestic agricultural and fishing tasks at an early age, nine being a common age for starting. The elderly are greatly respected and are often relieved from any physical work, but their opinions and ideas are eagerly sought by the middle-aged and young. Social Stratification Classes and Castes. Omani culture does not have a caste system, but it does operate in a hierarchy based on family connections (tribal ties), relative wealth, and religious education. At the top of the pyramid is the sultan and his immediate family, the Al-Said. This is followed by a large tribal group, the Al-Bu Said. Prior to the discovery of oil in the country, the wealthiest group (class) was arguably made up of the merchant families, many of them Indian in origin, language, and culture a particular Omani community, mainly of Hyderabadi origin, also accumulated some wealth through trade in foodstuffs. Certain families and tribes had built reputations for religious learning and mediation skills, and they often represented the government in the interior of the country. In the late twentieth century, wealth spread somewhat and a few more Omani families joined the ranks of the extremely wealthy. Oman has a small but growing middle class while the vast majority of its population outside of the capital area are engaged in subsistence agriculture, fishing, or animal husbandry. Symbols of Social Stratification. Dress in Omani culture is a badge, one highly visible and prominent marker of ethnic identity. Among Omani nationals, dress is finely tuned to reflect each persons region of origin or ethnic background. Womens clothing and, in particular, the choice of face covering and head cloth advertises membership in a particular tribal, ethnic, or language group. Mens clothing, consisting of a long, ankle-length shirt (locally called a thawb or dishdashah ), is also amenable to the expression of tribal and regional belonging through variations in the style of the collars and sleeves. Head covering is required of men as well as women. Political Life Government. Oman is a sultanate (a type of monarchy) with a sultan as the head of state and head of government. His position is hereditary within the Al Bu Said family. There are few checks on the power of the sultan and his decrees form the basis of law. He appoints a council of ministers and can dismiss ministers without reason. There is no prime minister. Leadership and Political Officials. Senior members of the sultans family routinely receive important government positions. More distant members of the family serve as ministers, other government officials, and the equivalent of governors throughout the country. Other ministers and senior government officials are chosen by merit and family or tribal connections Muscat merchant families are overrepresented. There are no political parties and a limited electorate chooses candidates for the Majlis al-Shura, an indirectly elected consultative council dealing with social issues. Social Problems and Control. The legal system is derived from a combination of Western and Arab civil codes with the Shariah (Islamic law) used in family matters such as marriage and inheritance. The Royal Oman Police covers the entire country and is responsible for traffic, criminal investigation, firefighting, the coast guard, and immigration. Crime is infrequent although the capital area has seen a modest increase in burglaries and there is some drug and alcohol abuse. Civil disobedience is unknown and there is complete respect for the law and state institutions. Military Activity. The armed forces of Oman were created to counter several insurrections beginning in the 1950s. Since the mid-1970s, however, there has been no unrest in Oman and the security forces are geared to protect against potential external threats. Oman continues to maintain a relatively large military establishment in part to provide employment for its people. Social Welfare and Change Programs Social welfare is still basically a family and kin network business. The old, the handicapped, the disabled, and the disadvantaged are looked after by a network of relatives. Since the 1970s, the government has worked hard to establish a social welfare service to promote stability and security for families in a rapidly changing social environment. The Ministry of Social Affairs, Labor, and Vocational Training takes responsibility for making monthly payments to the elderly, the widowed, the divorced, and the disabled. Special attention has been given to training the mildly disabled, especially the young, through special government centers. Nongovernmental Organizations and Other Organizations Oman has very few nongovernmental organizations (NGOs). Perhaps as a reflection of security concerns, it remains very difficult to acquire formal government recognition of NGO status. The first NGO to be created in Oman in the 1970s, the Omani Womens Association, was integrated into the Ministry of Social Affairs and Labor in the early 1980s. The Association for the Welfare of Handicapped Children, which was founded in 1990, runs a number of centers for the care and rehabilitation of disabled children and has acquired a semiofficial status. The Oman Charitable Organization (also known as the Oman Benevolent Society), was created in the late 1990s by royal decree to provide assistance to the needy. Other NGOs include sports clubs, literary associations, and university cultural centers. Gender Roles and Statuses Division of Labor by Gender. Gender roles are shaped by the demands of the economic realities of peoples lives. In the desert interior of the country, women contribute very actively to economic activities associated with livestock raising and have significant social and political power. In the agricultural oasis settlements, the economic role of women is not as active and this is reflected in reduced social and political power. Womens roles in religion reflect the formal restrictions of Islam. In urban centers and towns, however, many women serve as teachers in Islamic pre-schools, the kuttaib. The Relative Status of Women and Men. Women have significant authority within the family unit and make strong contributions toward family decisions regarding various rites of passage. Outside the kin group, however, women have little authority or privilege. From the early 1990s, the government has made great efforts to include women in government. Women were nominated to run for election to the consultative council in 1997, with two obtaining seats, and several speeches of the sultan emphasized the importance of integrating women into public life. Marriage, Family, and Kinship Marriage. Marriages are normally arranged. The preferred marriage is to a cousin. First choice is to a patrilateral cousin, and second choice is to a matrilateral cousin. Even the well-educated elite of the country, university medical students, express a preference for their families to arrange marriages for them. Love matches are very infrequent, as marriage is viewed more as a contract between two families with the major aim being to produce offspring for the next generation. In polygamous households (more common among the wealthy, but not restricted to them), the first wife tends to be a close cousin and the second wife a younger, less-close relative. In the past, men tended to take on additional wives x2014 Islam permits up to four x2014 but in recent years, men have tended to divorce first wives and remarry, often leaving divorced women destitute and reliant on the government for support. Domestic Unit. The domestic unit is generally an extended three-generation nuclear family residence is usually patrilocal, with the husbands family. Although many nuclear family units reside in single residences, individual family members keep in constant contact with each other through either daily visits or regular telephone calls. It is not unusual to find families of eight, nine or ten persons living in one household. The eldest male has the greatest authority in the family while an elderly female usually takes responsibility for allocating tasks within the household. Inheritance. The rules of inheritance are entirely governed by the Shariah (Islamic law), which lays down the percentage of an estate that each relative may inherit. In descending order of shares, this moves from the direct descendants (sons, wives, daughters, and husbands) to cousins and more distant relatives. These rules apply to fixed property and capital. In the interior among the pastoral tribes, women often pass on their share of certain large livestock (camels) to brothers or sons, in exchange for informal welfare security in their old age. Kin Groups. Omani culture is organized around the kin group as a large extended family or tribe inhabiting a particular valley or set of hamlets. There are also dispersed kin groups, the pastoral tribes, who move around with their livestock in search of grazing land in a territory normally regarded as theirs to use. Life revolves around the kin group in the interior of the country, while in the urban centers the extended family or tribe is the hub and locus of much activity and networking. Socialization Infant Care. Omanis do not separate the infant or child from family rhythm or routine. The newborn child remains exclusively with her or his mother for the first forty days after birth. After that the infant sleeps, eats, and plays at her side, and is nursed on demand for two years. Infants are not offered particular stimulation, but soothed and calmed and encouraged to watch rather than interact. Child Rearing and Education. After the age of two, Omani children are encouraged to behave like miniature adults, taking on duties or hospitality toward guests at a very young age. They are only reprimanded, ever mildly, occasionally with a tap across the back of the legs. They are socialized to look to their peer group. Punishment for unusual or unacceptable behavior is often offered as: What would your friends say Girls are circumcised with little ceremony at or just after birth and boys are circumcised in later childhood with some celebration of their entering an age of reason. Primary education for both boys and girls is encouraged. In the later intermediary and high school years, however, attendance by girls, particularly in rural areas, declines, largely due to a persistent pattern of early marriage. Many boys also leave school before the end of their secondary education in order to seek jobs, thus contributing to a large low-skill sector of the workforce. The government also operates a number of vocational training institutes. Higher Education. In 1986, Oman opened its first university. Built upon a combination of American and English models of higher education, the first colleges were of medicine, engineering, science, Islamic studies and education, and agriculture. In the 1990s, several more colleges were opened including a faculty of commerce and economics and a faculty of Shariah and law. Enrollment in the university is nearly equally split between male and female students. It was only in 1993 that, under pressure from elements in the private sector and the government, the university administration decided to deny women admission to two colleges, engineering and agriculture. In the late 1990s, the government sanctioned several private colleges that emphasized business curricula. Omanis are very polite and formal in public. Upon meeting, formulaic greetings must be exchanged before a discussion can ensue. To do otherwise would be considered rude. Although men and women may interact in public, their contact should always be chaperoned or in the open. Even educated elite women often find it necessary to be chaperoned by a male relative at public events, parties, or receptions. Omanis tend to stand close to one another as Arabs do, and it is common for friends and relatives of the same sex to hold hands. Two or more men or women entering a doorway at the same time always try to persuade the others to enter first, although a man always invites a woman to enter first. On the other hand, forming lines in shops, banks, and other public places is not a cultural trait, although women invariably are encouraged to go first. Religious Beliefs. Nearly all Omanis are Muslim, divided nearly equally into Sunnis and Ibadis with a small percentage of Shia. A few families of Indian origin are Hindu but there are no Omani Christians or Jews. Omanis tend to be careful in their observance of religious obligations. Most carry out the prescribed five prayers per day and many men go to nearby mosques to perform them. Most Omanis observe the dawn-to-dusk fasting required during the Islamic month of Ramadan, and it is against the law to eat, drink, or smoke in public during daylight hours in Ramadan. In addition to formal religious beliefs and practices, superstitions are common and some folk rituals are practiced. Religious Practitioners. There is little formal religious hierarchy. The government appoints the mufti who serves as the countrys highest Islamic authority. Traditional religious educators, known as sheikhs, are trained by the Ministry of Awqaf and Religious Affairs and teach in Koranic schools throughout the country. Religious judges ( qadi ) are appointed by the state to serve in Shariah courts. There are also religious healers ( mutawi ) whose services are called upon by the population, often to deal with mental illnesses. Rituals and Holy Places. All Omani Muslims are obliged to fast during Ramadan. One of the pillars of Islam, this period of abstinence lasts twenty-nine or thirty days. This month is also one of celebration and prayer and is followed by two important festivals, one immediately after the period of fasting, Eid-il-Fitr, and one sixty-six days later, Eid - il Adha. Many Omanis undertake the hajj, or pilgrimage to the holy city of Mecca (in Saudi Arabia), if they are physically and financially able. Because of the austerity of Ibadi Islam, there are no specific holy places in northern Oman there are, however, some venerated tombs of saints in Dhofar. Death and the Afterlife. Omanis are pragmatic when it comes to dealing with sickness. They will try modern medicine but if that fails will turn to traditional healers. Traditional herbalists, bonesetters, and exorcists have a thriving practice, especially in the interior of the country. Many look to the cold and hot properties of foods for curing sickness (a common practice in Islamic belief). Spirit possession, often among women, is addressed through zar, or exorcism, ceremonies, which frequently involve the community in the curative process. Secular Celebrations National Day takes place on 18 November, the birthday of the sultan, Qabus ibn Said. This is the principal nonreligious celebration of the year and includes a major pageant, a profusion of fireworks around the country, and the sultans annual policy speech. Armed Forces Day (11 December) is the occasion for a large banquet hosted by the sultan for his officers, senior government officials, and the diplomatic corps. The Islamic, but not the Christian, New Years Day is an official holiday. The Arts and Humanities Support for the Arts. The government provides some limited assistance for the arts through subsidies to such organizations as the Omani Arts Society. Most artists, however, either hold full-time jobs or come from well-to-do families. Literature. In the past, literature was confined to religious treatises and histories. Like other Arabs, Omanis gave great importance to oral traditions, including poetry and an emphasis on genealogical roots. The Ministry of Information has sought to revive these traditions through folk programs on radio and television. In the last decades of the twentieth century, a small number of authors published works of fiction and poetry. Graphic Arts. Traditional Omani handicrafts are in decline although periodic attempts are made to encourage their production. Notable handmade products include silver and gold jewelry, woven baskets, goat - and camel-hair rugs, swords and khanjars (daggers), and large pottery water jugs. Drawing, painting, and photography have become popular forms of expression in educated circles, although artists still tend to avoid representation of the human form as per Islamic convention. Performance Arts. Local instrumental and vocal music is very popular, as are songs from other Arab countries. Traditional performers still provide songs and dances at events such as marriages. The Ministry of National Heritage and Culture maintains a small national theater. Arab entertainers are well known throughout the country and many educated Omanis enjoy Western performance arts. The State of the Physical and Social Sciences Physical sciences, particularly earth sciences such as geology and hydrology, are popular subjects for study and research in Omans university and in a number of government ministries. The social sciences, however, are not as well represented. Economics and sociology are taught at the university, but anthropology, political science, and psychology are not. Bibliography Allen, Calvin H. Jr. Oman: The Modernization of the Sultanate, 1987. x2014 x2014. and W. Lynn Rigsbee II. Oman under Qaboos: From Coup to Constitution, 1970-1996, 2000. Bannerman, J. P. The Impact of the Oil Industry on Society in the Arabian Peninsula. In R. I. Lawless, ed., The Gulf in the Early Twentieth Century: Foreign Institutions and Local Responses, 1986. Barth, Fredrik. Sohar: Culture and Society in an Omani Town, 1983. Chatty, Dawn. The Bedouin of Central Oman. Journal of Oman Studies 6 (1): 149 x2013 162, 1983. x2014 x2014 . Mobile Pastoralists: Development Planning and Social Change in Oman, 1996. x2014 x2014. A Women and Work in Oman: Cultural Constraints and Individual Choice. International Journal of Middle East Studies 32 (2): 241 x2013 254, 2000. Costa, Paolo M. et al. Musandam: Architecture and Material Culture of a Little Known Region of Oman, 1991. Damluji, Salma Samar. The Architecture of Oman, 1998. Eickelman, Christine. Women and Politics in an Arabian Oasis. In Farhad Kazemi and R. D. McChesney, eds. A Way Prepared: Essays on Islamic Culture in Honour of Richard Bayly Winder, 1988. Eickelman, Dale F. Omani Village: The Meaning of Oil. In J. E. Peterson, ed., The Politics of Middle Eastern Oil, 1983. x2014 x2014. From Theocracy to Monarchy: Authority and Legitimacy in Inner Oman, 1935 x2013 1957. International Journal of Middle East Studies 17 (1): 3 x2013 24, 1985. x2014 x2014. National Identity and Religious Discourse in Contemporary Oman. International Journal of Islamic and Arabic Studies 6 (1): 1 x2013 20, 1989. Hawley, Donald. Oman and Its Renaissance, jubilee ed. 1995. Janzen, Jorg. Nomads in the Sultanate of Oman: Tradition and Development in Dhofar, 1986. Kechichian, Joseph A. Oman and the World: The Emergence of an Independent Foreign Policy, 1995. Kervran, Monique, and Vincent Bernard. Mihrabs omanais du 16e si xE8 cle: Un curieux exemple de conservatisme de lart du stuc iranien des xE9 poques seldjouqide et mongole. Arch xE9 ologie islamique 6: 109 x2013 156, 1996. Le Cour Grandmaison, Colette. La soci xE9 t xE9 rurale omanaise. In Paul Bonnenfant, ed., La P xE9 ninisule Arabique daujourdhui, 1982. Oman, Sultanate of. Diwan of Royal Court. Office of the Advisor for Conservation of the Environment. The Scientific Results of the Royal Geographical Societys Oman Wahiba Sands Project 1985 x2013 1987, 1988. Pelletreau, Robert H. Jr. John Page, Jr. Joseph A. Kechichian, Georgie Anne Geyer, and Christine Eickelman. Symposium: Contemporary Oman and U. S.-Oman Relations. Middle East Policy 4 (3) 1 x2013 29, 1996. Peterson, J. E. Oman in the Twentieth Century: Political Foundations of an Emerging State, 1978. x2014 x2014. Legitimacy and Political Change in Yemen and Oman. Orbis 27 (4): 971 x2013 998, 1984. x2014 x2014. The Political Status of Women in the Arab Gulf States. Middle East Journal 43 (1): 34 x2013 50, 1989. Pridham, B. R. ed. Oman: Economic, Social, and Strategic Developments, 1987. Skeet, Ian. Oman: Politics and Development, 1992. Tabuki, Salim Bakhit al-. Tribal Structures in South Oman. Arabian Studies 6: 51 x2013 56, 1982. Townsend, John. Oman: The Making of a Modern State, 1977. Wikan, Unni. Behind the Veil in Arabia: Women in Oman, 1982. Wilkinson, J. C. Water and Tribal Settlement in South-East Arabia: A Study of the Aflaj of Oman, 1977. x2014 x2014 . The Imamate Tradition of Oman, 1987. x2014 Dawn Chatty and J. E. PetersonCivilization IV Sid Meiers Civilization IV (or Civ IV or Civ4 ) is a turn-based strategy computer game released in 2005 and developed by lead designer Soren Johnson under the direction of Sid Meier and Meiers studio Firaxis Games. Until 2010 it would be the latest installment of the acclaimed Civilization series. Civilization IV was released between October 25 and November 4, 2005 in North America, Europe, and Australia. The games first expansion, Warlords . was released on July 24, 2006. The most recent expansion, Beyond the Sword . was released on July 23, 2007. Overview Edit Civilization IV is a turn-based game in which the player builds an empire from scratch. All standard full-length games begin in the Ancient Era (4000 BC ) with a single Settler to build ones first city and a Scout or a Warrior. depending on a civs starting technologies. From there, the player expands the empire while contending with rivals, utilizing the terrain. and developing technology. The player has several obstacles to face, modeled on political or economic problems faced by real-world nations. Apart from this they also have to handle their diplomatic relations with rivals and their continuing quest for exploration and new resources. Other important tasks include the planning of where to build new cities and progress in science which reveals access to new technologies. A player has the choice of playing the part of one of a number of historical figures such as Elizabeth I (England ) to Mao Zedong (China ). The scope of the game ranges from around 4000 BC to 2050 AD. Civilizations gradually advance in technology based on their own production of research and sometimes the work of Great People. Technologies range from writing and pottery through paper and gunpowder to genetic engineering and nuclear fusion. All technologies reveal new possibilities for a civilization and enable the chance to trade with other civilizations for military aid, gold, resources or other technologies. The concept of technological growth is based on a technology tree. Another important concept in the game, not present in the earliest games in the series, is the growth of culture, which expands ones cultural borders and can also cause ones culture to infiltrate into another civilizations, sometimes causing a city to rebel against its current owner. Culture is increased through the creation of World Wonders (which may have fx effects), constructing certain buildings in cities, and the spreading of a number of religions ( see below ). The game can be won through conquest (conquering all other civilizations), domination (controlling a percentage of the worlds land and population), the space race (being the first to construct a spaceship capable of colonizing Alpha Centauri ), culture (increasing the cultural ratings of three different cities to legendary levels) and diplomacy (through votes in the United Nations ). Finally, if the games clock runs out (by default in the year 2050 AD), the nation with the highest composite score is declared the winner. Civilization IV was released in English, German, French, Spanish, and Italian. Fans have also made Russian and Finnish translations. 1 2 Gameplay Edit Diplomacy Edit Diplomacy in Civilization IV generally involves the trading of goods. Different trade options require different advancements to unlock, and some things may only be traded for certain other things (e. g. per turns deals must be compensated by another per turn deal). Players may trade technologies, resources (including luxuries such as wine), maps (to reveal information about the rest of the world) and gold. Advanced diplomacy options include the creation of trade embargoes, the promising of military aid, and the adoption of particular civics andor a religion. The reasoning behind diplomacy is more transparent when compared to Civ3. the Diplomacy window now not only displays the other leaders attitudes (gracious, friendly, pleased, cautious, annoyed, furious), but why they feel that way (e. g. -2: You refused to stop trading with our worst enemies). When a leader is friendly or gracious towards ones civilization, they are more likely to accept deals without unfair bargaining. Another new feature is the new abilities of the United Nations. The United Nations wonder allows passing global resolutions (e. g. the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty ) in addition to granting access to diplomatic victory. Unlike real-world resolutions, Civilization IV s resolutions are binding, except that in Beyond the Sword you have the option of defying resolutions. Combat Edit Units no longer have separate attack and defense values. Instead, they have a base strength that is increased or decreased depending on the situation. The units strength also affects how much damage it can do. Prior to the 1.52 patch, the units damage was calculated using its current strength (which also acts as lifehitpoints and changes accordingly). After the patch, the damage is calculated from the base strength - this means that badly damaged modern units can still easily win battles against obsolete units. Instead of generic increases in rank, individual units gain specific types of combat experience, such as fxes against specific types of enemies or abilities like faster movement in forests. In total, there are 41 different types of combat promotions. It is also now possible for players to examine combat odds before attacking, giving the player a good sense as to whether a given attack will succeed or not, factoring in all the various fxes and penalties associated with terrain, unit capabilities, and so forth. The 1.61 patch brought further changes, and now damaged units attack or defend with the average of their current and full strengths. Production and trade Edit The game features 32 types of resources, all of which are tradable and require an improvement (such as a mine or an oil well) to be utilized. Some resources are required for certain units, buildings, or wonders (iron. copper ) some may double the production speed of a certain wonder (marble. stone ) and some act as luxuries like in Civ III . providing either happiness or health to all cities connected to them (fur. dye. incense ). There are also three types of culture goods provided by World Wonders, rather than resources, that can be traded: Hit Singles. Hit Movies and Hit Musicals. To trade goods or to send them to other cities within ones border, they must have some form of connection between the goods and the city. In the later game, this connection can be through ocean tiles, but in the early game, it is limited to roads and rivers. Cities on the same river are automatically connected for trading purposes, while cities on the same coastline are connected for trading purposes once the Sailing technology is researched. Production (also - as it was in Colonization - known as Hammers, the icon that represents it) is sometimes used as a resource-term on Civilization. Each tile provides a city with a certain amount of Hammers which collect up in the city to produce buildings and units. Unlike in Civilization III, the player is no longer able to transfer all production from one project to another, but all production on a certain project will remain. For example, if the player is building a temple but decides to switch to a harbor, production on the harbor will have to start from scratch. However, the temple stays in the building queue and retains its previous progress, aside from some decay over time. As an ancillary rule, if one culture is building a World Wonder but another empire completes it first, the losing culture is compensated with gold proportional to the amount of Production points lost. Religion Edit The concept of separate religions is new to Civilization IV . In previous games, players could build temples and cathedrals, but the religion was just a generic feature of happiness and culture. There are now seven distinct religions in the game:Buddhism. Christianity. Confucianism. Hinduism. Islam. Judaism. and Taoism. There are no fxes or traits specific to any religion, except that each religion is tied to a specific technological advance, and the four later religions (Christianity, Confucianism, Islam, and Taoism) begin with a free Missionary unit for reasons of game balance. Also, the respective cathedrals of each religion have different resources that aid in their construction, although are not necessary. If a player is the first to discover a certain religion on the tech tree, they can found the new religion a city with no religion or the newest city in that civilizations empire becomes that religions holy city. The player can then build Monasteries and train Missionaries to spread their religion(s) to other cities, both foreign and domestic. ( Colonization also has missionaries, spreading their version of Christianity.) Religion factors into a number of existing game mechanics. Civs that share a common state religion will be friendly in their diplomatic dealings conversely, civs with differing state religions will be hostile to each other. Securing an open-borders agreement, sending in missionaries and then encouraging the other civ to convert is a relatively painless way of encouraging international tranquility. The founding civ of a religion also receives an economic benefit: if that civ expends a Great Prophet at their religions holy city, they will receive that religions most sacred building (the Kashi Vishwanath. the Church of the Nativity. etc.), which provides a 1-gold-per-city tithe from every city hosting that religion. Finally, if a civ has 1) a state religion, 2) that religions holy city and 3) that religions sacred building, they will receive line-of-sight in every city hosting said religion, providing additional intelligence and a good way to keep an eye on foreign progress. Additionally, if one can gain an early diplomatic victory by building a Apostolic Palace. which also has the same features as a UN building, though nations can only be members if they have at least one city with the same religion as the Apostolic Palace (your state religion). The new civics model of government also has a strong effect on religion: players can found a state religion, declare religious freedom, or take other actions that have profound impacts on the religious lives of their subjects. If a civilization has no declared religion, they are exempt from all described fxes and penalties. Civilizations and leaders Edit Eight of the eighteen civilizations have two leaders. Each leader offers fxes based on what conditions were exceptional during the historical reign of that leader, and each leader acts as differently as if they were a separate civilization and have distinct personalities. Several historic figures not used in previous Civ games are AI leaders in Civ4 . including: Asoka. Cyrus II. Franklin D. Roosevelt. George Washington. Hatshepsut. Mansa Musa. Kublai Khan. Peter the Great. Qin Shi Huang. Saladin (though Saladin was a hidden leader in Civ 2 ), and Queen Victoria. All civilizations have some element of uniqueness and all leaders have certain traits based on their achievements in real life. While these are limited, they have some effect on a players game plan. All civilizations also have a unique unit which can be military (such as Persian Immortals ) or economic (such as Indian Fast Workers ). Below is a summary of each civilizations capital and unique features. Technologies Edit As in prior versions of Civilization, there are technologies for the civilizations to discover. There are a total of 85 technologies in the game, up from 80 in Civilization III . Technologies have many uses they can be used for trade, for the construction of new buildings and wonders, for the founding of new religions, or for the development of new forms of government. To discover modern technologies, it is first necessary to discover the technologies that lead up to it (for example, democracy can only be discovered after the printing press ). See List of technologies in Civ4 for complete list. See the full tech tree here. Technology development is flexible: certain technologies can be discovered in more than just one way. The game has a very useful tech tree, which can be accessed by pressing F6 on the keyboard. The tech tree displays all the techs in the game and their relations with one another. It is possible to select even unavailable techs for research. This will cause all the prerequisite techs to be researched in order. If multiple paths lead to the target tech, the civilization will pick the shortest. The final tech or group of techs, as in previous versions, are called Future Tech, followed by a number. Instead of simply adding on to the final score, however, as in earlier games, each city receives a happiness and health fx for each future tech discovered. In single-player games, the discovery of each tech during the game is accompanied by a famous quotation from history which is voiced by Leonard Nimoy of Star Trek fame. The sources of the quotes range from the Buddha, Charles Darwin, Brillat-Savarin, Steve Wozniak, Henry Ford, the Bible all the way to Lonnie Donegan, and Dan Quayle. Scoring system Edit In Civilization IV the leadership skills of players are compared to a subjective list of twenty of the best or worst leaders in history, similar to the list in Civilization I . The score is based on a number of factors, including military growth and success, technological advancement, construction of wonders and economic growth. It is shown at the end of the game. The released version of the game abandoned Civilization III s graded scale. In Civ3 . a spectacular victory on the easiest difficulty would provide the player with only a middling score, and the best titles were only awarded to players attempting the hardest difficulties. The original Civ4 . on the other hand, allows the player to obtain any score on any difficulty level. As of the v1.61 patch, the grading system has returned to the curved-by-difficulty scale. New features Edit Gameplay Edit Many aspects of Civilization IV are new to the series (though some appear in spinoffs or Colonization ). These include: Great People that fall into five categories: artists, merchants, prophets, engineers, and scientists. Each of these grants several fx abilities. Among the Great People included are Aristotle, Plato, Moses, William Shakespeare, Ramakrishna, Michelangelo, Isaac Newton, Albert Einstein, and Marie Curie. (See List of historical figures in Civilization IV for a full list of people and cultures used in Civ IV.) The founding and spreading of religions and the adoption of a state religion ( see above ) Instead of subtracting from a citys population upon completion, Settler and Worker units require the city to suspend its population growth, on the theory that all its new citizens are being funneled into the unit, until it contains enough people to depart. This makes Settlers significantly more difficult to build in small cities, and encourages players to build up their cities before expanding. The concept of city maintenance replaces corruption, which has been removed. Civilizations with a large number of small or ineffective cities will find their empire too expensive to maintain. One civilizations units cannot cross another civilizations territory unless the civilizations are at war or have agreed to an open borders treaty . though there are special units (such as the spy and the caravel) which are able to cross borders with or without the open borders agreement. Governments have been replaced with a more flexible civics model, where the player can set the amount of freedom the citizens have (slavery. free speech. etc.). There are five different categories in the new civics model (Government. Legal. Labor, Economy. and Religion), and five separate options within each category. This appears to be adapted from the Social Engineering section of Sid Meiers Alpha Centauri . AI civilizations no longer act as if they have knowledge of the entire map. (In Civ2 they appeared to have only limited knowledge and could exchange maps.) The AI is more intelligent. It makes full use of all options and exhibits better long-term planning abilities. Barbarians now form cities, often named after their tribe or culture (Hun. Visigoth. etc.). These cities act and react like any other city: they send out worker units to improve terrain, can be captured or razed by military force, can be culture-flipped, and so on. However, they cannot be contacted via diplomacy. (In earlier games, barbarians could capture cities.) Their symbol on the flag is a white skull on a black field. Interface improvements Edit Pollution, size restrictions, and similar aspects from earlier games are combined into one City Health system. Resources and improvementssuch as wheat and hospitalsadd health points, while population growth and industry decrease them. A negative total causes a food production penalty for the city. Fallout continues to exist in the case of a nuclear attack or meltdown. Similarly, cities no longer fall into disorder. For each unhappiness point over the amount of happiness points, one population point refuses to work, reducing the productivity of the city. Some streamlining elements have been introduced, such as the ability to select and issue orders to multiple units at the same time. When population grows, a new technology is discovered, or a new unitimprovement is built, any excess resources are carried over rather than wasted. Greater emphasis has been placed on the overall map-view mode. Where, in previous Civ games, a player was often forced to access the City Management screen, almost all of its functions have been integrated into (or made accessible via) the standard map view, as have many abilities (diplomacy, research topic selection, tax rate, etc.) that were formerly the domain of the Advisor screens. The game is almost totally playable from the map view alone. Audio-visual Edit More emphasis has also been put on the games soundtrack. which features compositions of Medieval, Renaissance, Baroque, Classical, Romantic and Minimalist origin, and self-composed pieces (mainly by Jeff Briggs ). The main theme, Baba Yetu , was written by Christopher Tin. Each leader has a unique piece of music played during diplomacy (with the exception of Kublai Khan, who shares his music with Genghis Khan ). Many of the pieces are popular and familiar for example, Roosevelts music is the Marines Hymn. and Napoleons is a variant on La Marseillaise . Some are renditions of famous pieces of classical music, such as Fredericks piece, which is a paraphrase of the fourth of the Goldberg Variations. Barbarians being Polonaise , or Bismarcks. which is the opening theme of the second movement of Beethoven s Symphony No. 3. Others, such as Mao Zedong and Alexander the Great have music that has been modified from earlier games, such as Civilization III . Still others have entirely original scores. See: Music in Civilization IV Narrative voice acting, previously heard in Sid Meiers Alpha Centauri but never used in a game with Civilization in its title, is provided by Leonard Nimoy. who reads a quotation related to a technology when it is discovered (technologies introduced in the expansion packs have their quotations read by Sid himself). Land-based units also offer short phrases in their cultures native language when selected. If the players view is near a city, they will hear sounds related to the nation which owns that city. Sound effects are played when certain buildings or improvements are built, such as coins jingling when a bank is completed. Ambient sounds can also be heard near different terrains when zoomed in. For example, near the ocean or on its shore, waves splashing and breaking up can be heard. Civilization 4 uses the same 3D engine (Gamebryo ) used in Sid Meiers Pirates . which allows players to zoom smoothly from world map levels down to features in individual cities. Wonder movies have returned after being absent in Civilization III . Official maps and scenarios Edit Sid Meiers Civilization IV included some fx content, released with mainly the purpose of showing modding capabilities: Earth - This is the world map of the game. 124x68 tiles big, it features just 9 ancient civilizations. It is based on Robinson projection of the Earth, in order to optimize its size. 3 Later, a 18 civilizations version was released, and being reckoned flawless, it won the first prize at GameFlood modding contest. 4 Earth Ice Age - This map is set in the world during the last ice age (20,000 years before present). 11 randomly-picked civilizations are contained in this map. 5 Earth 1000 AD - 13 civilizations populate the world in this exact recreation of the Earth at the time of the Crusades 6 Greek World - To reenact the classical Mediterranean, a special map was made, based on Hecataeuss map of the world, as it was known by the Greeks. Extra detail is borrowed from other ancient maps such as Homers, Herodotuss and Ptolemys. 7 Desert War - This scenario represents the Mediterranean theater of World War II. Axis and Allies have different cities as objective. They can win the game holding them for 10 turns. American Revolution - This scenario begins in 1775 AD. Player can side with American colonists or with the British Crown. Customization Edit Civilization IV is much more open to modification than its predecessors. Game data and rules are stored in XML files, and a Software Development Kit was released in April 2006 to allow AI customization. Major parts of the interface, map generation, and scripted events are written entirely in Python and can be customised. World Builder Edit The World Builder allows a player to create a map from scratch, to use an in-game situation as a starting point for a new scenario, or to simply cheat by giving himself more units, gold, buildings, better relations with leaders, improvements, cultural borders, technologies, even take over other cities by placing a border there. The terrain can be altered, and resources, military units and cities on the map can be added, removed or modified. Additionally, each civilizations technological progress as well as its diplomatic and military ties to other civilizations can be edited. The World Builder for Civ IV is in-game, in contrast to previous Civilization games where the Map Editor was an external application. (In Civ2 one could modify anything using Cheat Mode .) World Builder can also be used to create an interesting experience. In custom game mode, the user must first turn all opposing civilizations off as well as all victory conditions. Barbarians must also be deactivated. In World Builder, the user can make it so that the player only starts with a settler with no starting technologies. This allows the user to progress through all technologies for a more expanded experience of the development of civilization. More game attributes are stored in XML files, which must be edited with an external text editor or application. Barry Caudill, a senior producer at Firaxis Games, said 1 in September: Editing these files will allow players to tweak simple game rules and change or add content. For instance, they can add new unit or building types, change the cost of wonders, or add new civilizations. Players can also change the sounds played at certain times or edit the play list for your soundtrack. At the current time the XML processing in Windows is more permissive of minor errors than in Mac OS X. As a result, some XML files which will work on the Windows version of the game need some slight tweaking before they function on the Macintosh version. Python Edit The game uses boost. python to allow the Python programming language access to many parts of the game (including the style and content of all interface screens). Python can also be used to modify random map generation and to add complex scripted events. The version of Python present in the Windows version of the game differs from the version in Mac OS X up to and including version 10.4.7, and as a result, while most Python files for the Windows version will work on the Macintosh version, not all will. Software Development Kit Edit The Civilization IV Software Development Kit was released on April 13 2006 to coincide with the release of the v1.61 patch. The kit allows players to view, modify, or completely re-write the games DLL source code, enabling the modification of the games AI and other integral parts of the game. 2 As of the first official patch for the Macintosh version (v1.61 Revision A), there is no SDK for the Macintosh version of the game. In fact the Macintosh version lacks the separate library of game related code which the PC version uses, but instead includes the code compiled into the main executable. There is as of yet no indication of whether this will change in a future patch. Launch problems Edit The release of Civilization IV did not go smoothly. Technical, production and shipping problems marred its product cycle. As originally shipped, the game functioned poorly on minimum-specification machines, and suffered from performance problems. It also conflicted with certain mainstream graphics cards. A user-created utility program was created to fix the memory usage problems. These problems were officially patched with version 1.52. Some considered the minimum specification unnecessarily high for what is ultimately a strategy game. In particular, many with laptops containing Intel graphics chipsets faced an issue due to a lack of Hardware Transform and Lighting features however, the dependence upon this functionality seems to have been reduced with the release of recent patches. A major patch (v1.61) was released on 13 April. 2006. 3. The patch made a number of gameplay tweaks, fixes and additions, including five new scenarios and three new map scripts. The patch also added support for the Pitboss turn-based server application. As before, the 45.7 MB patch can be downloaded using the games in-built updating utility, or from a variety of mirrors. 4 The most common packaging errors have been French and German technology charts in English-language boxes 5 and the erroneous packing of two of the same CD-ROM, rendering the game unusable. 6. 2K games has been replacing such shipments for free. Other copies have mislabeled disks since this does not affect gameplay, users are asked to just use the right CD-ROM when applicable 7. There have also been some cases in which the game manual has pages placed in the wrong spot (e. g. page one is the very last page of the manual). There are also many typographical errors in the Dutch manual. Civ IV uses SafeDisc 4, which refuses to acknowledge legitimate game copies if certain programs associated with unauthorized copying are installed. Unofficial work-arounds to SafeDisc exist. Many players have experienced difficulty in multiplayer gameplay. When they attempt to join a game, their connection is refused by a fellow players router or firewall, thus inhibiting gameplay. This problem is quite widespread in the Civ IV multiplayer community, and those players with routers or firewalls which reject other computers have been labeled as bad peers. The problem is partially correctable by forwarding a series of ports on ones router or firewall to the game computer 8 (this method has not consistently solved the problem for some users), and can be eliminated entirely by demilitarizing the game computer on the router or firewall. Despite all of these problems, many newer computers run Civilization IV quite smoothly. The headache caused by the need to cater to many different computer configurations has caused lead designer Soren Johnson to state that he seriously considers focusing on console development. 9 Patches Edit The v1.09 patch for Civilization IV was released on 23 November 2005. While it fixed some memory leak issues, the patch seemed to focus more on tweaks to buildings and units, while also creating some problems of its own. The v1.52 patch, released on 22 December 2005, was a major update that fixed several of the major performance headaches relating to numerous memory leaks and usage. v1.52 also added several new scenarios and maps. in addition to tweaking. On 13 April 2006, the v1.61 patch was released. Also a major update, it fixed several performance issues remaining from v1.09 and v1.52, including the stuttering Wonder movie problem. Several new additions were made to the game, including two new map scripts, new game options and new scenarios. Many gameplay tweaks were also made. Although the patch was considered a success for some users, others have reported various problems, including a loss of text and sound. These problems seem to be related to the incompatibility of certain mods downloaded by users. Expansions Edit Platforms Edit Civilization IV is available for two different platforms currently, Windows (PC) and Macintosh. The Macintosh version is published by Aspyr and was released in June 2006. Though it lacks some of the customization features which were added to the PC version in v1.61 and lacks support for the GameSpy internet gaming system, instead being compatible with the Mac specific GameRanger. it is otherwise identical to v.1.61 of the PC version. The game was released as a Universal binary, running on both x86 and PPC based Macintoshes. Multiplayer games involving both versions of the game work, but require the use of one of the multiplayer options other than Internet Play due to the incompatible formats used by the two platforms. Critics scores Edit Awards Edit Trivia Edit Sid Meier narrates the tutorial. Much of the game is voiced by Leonard Nimoy. famous for playing the role of Spock from Star Trek . In the cultural victory cutscene, the Colossus face appears to be a composite of Sid Meier. The manual went into production before the developers finished the game, and there are several notable errors: All the results of all the games that have been played, regardless of victory or score, are listed in the Hall of Fame (despite what the manual says: If your victory is spectacular enough, your exploits might be recorded on the Civilization IV Hall of Fame screen ) The Three Gorges Dam has replaced the Hoover Dam. which was the Wonder used in previous versions of the game. Elvis Presley has had some form of appearance in every Civilization title so far: in Civilization IV . the clothes of the Great Artist units, from the Industrial to the Modern Ages, and the Rock n Roll wonder are tributes to him. Spaceship journeys to Alpha Centauri are always successful. In the video for the Space Victory, the figure that jumps down resembles CEO Nwabudike Morgan from Sid Meiers Alpha Centauri . The animation shown when beginning a new game (commencing with words In the beginning, the Earth was without form, and void. ) is a tribute to original Civilization game, where very similar animation accompanied with the same text was played. See here for the full text. The name of the title song played at the start of the game is Baba Yetu . The title means Our Father in Swahili, and the song itself is a rendition of the Christian Lords Prayer. It is performed by Stanford Universitys Talisman A Cappella and was composed by Christopher Tin. (lyrics and more information. sample ) In the popup which tells the player that they have reached the Modern Age, there is a digital watch with the brand name Soren . This is a reference to Soren Johnson. the lead designer and AI programmer for the game. The time shown on the watch is 05:23, and Sorens birthday is May 23 (0523). The Firaxis logo is the artwork on the sails of workboats. In a reference to a famous Al Gore quotation. the former Vice President s face is featured in the graphic for The Internet Project. In the movie for the Hollywood wonder, the blueprints include a picture of Clara Bow and a Hollywood Walk of Fame star for Hoot Gibson. When the player is at war with France against Louis XIV and he refused an offer to end the war, he would occasionally say, It is too late for peace, you silly (your nation here) Now go away or I shall taunt you a second time This is referring to the French Taunters in Monty Python and the Holy Grail. It even made more evident if the player uses English civilization, since in the movie the French Taunters also said Silly English K-nnnigets. When the player is at war with America against Roosevelt and he refuses an offer to end the war, he occasionally says, America does not negotiate with terrorists. When starting or loading a game hints will pop up in the bottom of the screen. Such hints include: Never start a land war in Asia, Snacks are good in moderation and Never bring a sword to a gunfight. When zoomed close to an American city, fifes and drums playing can be heard. The sequence is a remake from another Sid Meier game, Colonization . A promotional website for a fictional group called Civilization Anonymous (a parody of Alcoholics Anonymous ) was put on the internet and advertised in gaming magazines prior to the games release. When selecting what size and style of map a player wants to use in a new game, a globe with seemingly random land masses rotates in a space within the selection window. The globe is actually an upside-down planet earth with oceans in the shape of earths continents. In the movie for the Kremlin wonder, the building shown is not the Moscow Kremlin. but Saint Basils Cathedral instead. The part of the real Kremlin is seen at the end of the movie on the right side. The graphic model and image for the Masjid al-Haram is not the real mosque, but the Dome of the Rock, which is located in Jerusalem near the Masjid al-Aksa, the third holy mosque. References Edit Recent retail prices Edit New Zealand Edit 39.99 (about US28) for the complete game (with both expansion packs) at Noel Leeming, Porirua, Dec 2009 United States Edit 13.99 for the complete game (August 2015, at Amazon ) 6.00 for the complete game in download (August 2015, at Amazon ) The Netherlands Edit 10.00 for the complete game (with both expansion packs), March 2011 See also Edit